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Book_.X)73^ 
CopyiightN" 

COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



TOPICAL DISCUSSION OF 
AMERICAN HISTORY 



CONSTITUTING A TEACHERS' MANUAL AND 

COURSE OF STUDY IN HISTORY 

AND CIVICS FOR USE IN 



THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 



BY 



WILLIAM C. DOUB 

EX-SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS FOR KERN COUNTY, CALIFORNIA 

AUTHOR OF "a HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES," "EDUCATIONAL 

QUESTIONS," "topical DISCUSSION OP GEOGRAPHY," 

"pupil's OUTLINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY," ETC. 



DOUB & COMPANY 
SAN FRANCISCO 

1906 

All rights reserved 



, i 



U8RARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoD(e« Received 
•J^N 18 190/ 
Cooyrieht E«try 

LASS «^ XXc, No. 

COPY B. 



CoPYRiGirx, 1904 
By WILLIAM C. DOUB 

Copyright, 1905 
By WILLIAM C. DOUB 

Copyright, 1906 
By DOUB & COMPANY 



Set 



up^ electrotyped, and published, 1904 
Repriuted 1905, 1906 



PREFACE 

This little volume is a working manual for the teacher and 
constitutes a course in history and civics for the elementary 
schools. Many able educators have been consulted in the prep- 
aration of this course, and it is believed to be so complete in 
every detail that boards of education can adopt it as the course 
in history and civics without further reference to these subjects 
in the school manual or regular course of study. The discus- 
sions, references and questions in this volume are intended for 
the direct help and assistance of the teacher, the object being 
to reduce the teacher's work to a minimum and to provide at the 
same time a broad and progressive course in history and civics. 
Special attention is directed to "Questions for Class Recita- 
tions" and "Questions for Compositions and Examinations," 
which follow each general topic or chapter in the work for the 
seventh and eighth grades. 

A few years ago it would have been necessary to have accom- 
panied this little volume with an explanatory word regarding 
the nature of the work for which it provides. Happily, that 
time is now passed, for nearly all the better teachers and schools 
in the United States are now doing the work for which the 
course of study herein outlined makes specific provision. The 
combining of the work in civics with that on history is one of 
the most valuable features of this course, and a feature which 
has been thoroughly tested in the best schools with most satis- 
factory results. 

William C. Doub 

San Francisco, August 1, 1905 



THE TRUE SPIRIT OF HISTORY 

"It is a product of the s^eneral feeling among progressive 
educators that history should cease to be a mere exercise in 
memory gymnastics, and become a genuine study of human 
life and experience. In the grammar school, as well as in the 
high school or the university, history should be so presented 
that man is ever seen to be its real object. It should never for a 
single moment be lost sight of that, while the right study of 
history aflfords a training for the reason and the judgment 
scarcely rivaled by that gained from any other source, yet the 
chief subject-matter is man in his political and other social 
relations. It is the things which are really important in human 
progress, in the struggle for existence, that one wishes to know. 
Lists of dates and genealogical tables of royal or noble person- 
ages are not so helpful to the youth preparing himself for 
citizenship as a knowledge of the institutions of his country 
and state, or even of his county, village or school district." 

— From Dr. George Elliott Howard's introductory note to Doub's 
"Topical Discussion of American History" (first edition). 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE 3 

BOOKS II 

References and Abbreviations 12 

HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER GRADES 15 

Third Year Grade 15 

Fourth Year Grade 18 

Fifth Year Grade 19 

Sixth Year Grade 20 

INTRODUCTORY 23 

Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 25 

Ancient Ideas of the World 25 

False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civilization. 25 

Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 26 

Conditions Leading to Exploration 27 

Discoveries and Explorations 29 

Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 29 

English Discoveries and Explorations 29 

French Discoveries and Explorations 29 

Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 29 

Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 30 

Disposition of Territory in the New World 30 

Decline of Spanish Power 30 

Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 30 

Defeat of the Spanish Armada 31 

The American Indian 32 

Origin of Name 32 

Classification According to Civilization 32 

Appearance and Manner of Living 33 

Character 34 

THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 38 

Origin, Growth and Political History 43 

Virginia 43 

Maryland 45 

North and South Carolina 46 

Georgia 47 , 



6 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Plymouth and Massacluisetts Bay Colonies 48 

Connecticut and New Haven 50 

Rhode Island 50 

New Hampshire and Maine '..... 50 

New York 58 

New Jersey 60 

Delaware 61 

Pennsylvania 61 

The French in North America 70 

French Explorations and Settlements 70 

Contrast of French and English Settlements 70 

Relations of the French with the Indians 71 

Early Conflict between the French and the English 71 

The French and Indian War ^2 

Institutional Life in the Colonies tj 

Industrial Conditions 86 

Social Conditions 93 

Government 102 

Religion: Growth of Religious Liberty 113 

Education 117 

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 131 

American Institutions: Changes in, and from where Derived. 132 

Government in England 132 

Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to America.... 135 

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 138 

Causes and Beginnings 140 

Causes of the Revolution 140 

The Beginnings of the Revolution 143 

Campaigns 146 

The Campaign to Separate New England from the Other 
States, and the Campaign against Philadelphia and the 

Middle States 147 

Campaign against the Southern Colonies 149 

Results of the War 150 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 157 

The Nature of the National Government 159 

The Northwest Territory 160 

Conditions of Money and Business 161 

Anarchy and Rebellion 162 

The Constitutional Convention 162 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 7 

PAGE 

The Constitution , 165 

Organization of the New Government 167 

NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTER- 
FERENCE 170 

The Period of European Interference 176 

Origin of American Neutrality in European Afifairs 176 

The Jay Treaty 177 

Breach with France 178 

The Alien and Sedition Acts 178 

The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions 179 

The Purchase of Louisiana 179 

European Interference with American Commerce 180 

The War of 1812, or the War for Commercial Independ- 
ence 181 

The Hartford Convention 184 

The Purchase of Florida 184 

The Monroe Doctrine 185 

Financial Legislation : the Tariff 186 

Hamilton's Financial Measures 186 

Jefferson and Gallatin's Financial Policy 187 

The National Bank and State Banks 188 

Tariff Legislation 188 

Political Parties 189 

Rise of Political Parties 189 

Fall of the Federalist Party 190 

The Republican Party 191 

Growth of the Nation 192 

Growth in Territory and Population 192 

Movement of Population 192 

Results of Westward Expansion 193 

Growth of National Unity 196 

Institutional Life 197 

Industrial Conditions 198 

Social Conditions 200 

Government 201 

Religion 201 

Education 202 

WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 212 

Political Methods and Political Parties 217 

Meaning of Jackson's Election 217 

Political Methods 217 

Political Parties 219 



8 TABLE OF CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Financial Legislation : the Tariff 221 

The Tariff 221 

Destruction of the National Bank 222 

The Panic of 1837 223 

The Independent or Sub-Treasury Sj-stem 224 

Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 225 

The Oregon Territory 225 

Annexation of Texas 225 

The Mexican War 226 

The Slatory Question 227 

The Abolition Movement 227 

Expansion of Slave Territory; The Compromise of 1850.. 229 

The Kansas-Nebraska Bill 230 

The Struggle for Kansas . 231 

The Dred Scott Decision 231 

The Lincoln-Douglas Debates 232 

The Election of Lincoln 232 

Institutional Life 232 

Industrial Conditions 233 

Social Conditions 235 

Government 236 

Religion 236 

Education 236 

THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 247 

Comparative Resources of the North and the South 251 

Available Soldiers, Commanders and Military Supplies... 251 
Financial Resources, Facilities for Transportation 252 

Secession and Beginnings 252 

The Right of Secession 252 

Secession 253 

The Fall of Fort Sumter 253 

The Battle of Bull Run 253 

Campaigns 254 

Scope and Nature of Campaigns; Method of Treatment.. 254 

The Eastern Campaign 255 

The Western Campaign 256 

The Campaigns of 1864-1S65 259 

The Work of the Navy in the Civil War 260 

Blockade of the Southern Ports 260 

Commerce Destroyers 260 

The Revolution in Naval Warfare 261 

Results 261 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 9 

« 

PAGE 

RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPxMENT AND EXPANSION.. 266 

Reconstruction of the Seceded States 271 

Relation of the Seceded States to the National Government 271 

Death of Lincoln: His Character and Ability 271 

Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 272 

Reconstruction Policy of Congress 272 

Some Results of Reconstruction 274 

Political Methods and Political Parties 274 

Political Methods 274 

Political Parties 275 

Financial and Industrial Legislation 276 

Financial Legislation 276 

Tariff Legislation 278 

Industrial Combinations 279 

Foreign Relations 281 

Purchase of Alaska 281 

Treaty of Washington 281 

Application of the Monroe Doctrine 281 

Growth of Arbitration 282 

The Spanish-American War 283 

Isthmian Canal 286 

Institutional Life 286 

Industrial Conditions 287 

Social Conditions 291 

Education 292 



BOOKS 

This Topical Discussion of American History is to be used 
by the teacher as a manual and course of study in history and 
civics. Even when Doub's History of the United States is 
being used as the regular text, this Topical Discussion is 
designed to be of much value to the busy teacher in preparing 
for the recitation. Those teachers wishing to make fuller 
preparation may consult such of the following as are available : 
The United States in the Cambridge Modern History Series, 
Volume VH ; Lodge's Short History of the English Colonies 
in America ; and Fiske's Discovery of America, Old Virginia 
and Her Neighbors, The Beginnings of New England, New 
France and New England, The American Revolution, and the 
Critical Period of American History. If possible, a copy of 
each of these books should be in the school library. Most of 
the books here designated for the use of the teacher will be 
read and studied with interest by more than half the pupils in 
the seventh and eighth grades, and especially is this true of 
the Fiske books. Other material of a general nature, specially 
suited to pupils in these two grades, should be selected, and 
the selection of this material should receive the teacher's most 
careful consideration. 



REFERENCES AND ABBREVIATIONS 

Specific references are given to Doub, McMaster, Mace, 
Gordy, Thomas and Montgomery. If the teacher desire she 
can easily cite references to any other text. There should be 
enough copies of these books in the library for reading and 
ready reference, but if Doub's grammar school history of the 
United States is in the hands of the pupil, no other text need 
be used for reference because it gives special consideration to 
the topics outlined in this course. The abbreviations used in 
citing references arc as follows : 

D. Doub's History of the United States 

H. I. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 1 

H. II. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 2 

H. HI. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 3 

H. IV. Hart's Source Reader in American History, No. 4 

Mc. McMaster's School 1 listory of the United States 

Ma. Mace's School History of the United States 

G. Gordy's History of the United States 

T. Thomas' History of the United States 

M. Montgomery's History of the United States 



HISTORY AND CIVICS 

IN THE 

LOWER GRADES 



HISTORY AND CIVICS IN THE LOWER 
GRADES 

This outline of work for the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth 
year grades has no direct connection with the other subject- 
matter of this manual. This manual on American history has 
been prepared on the supposition that the pupil, when he begins 
the seventh-year work, has made no previous study of history 
and civics. It is generally recognized, however, that it is most 
desirable to give history and civics a place in the lower grades. 
This outline has been prepared for the specific purpose of meet- 
ing this demand. It is hoped that the plan of work which fol- 
lows will prove suggestive and valuable to those progressive 
teachers and schools that desire to give history and civics their 
proper places in the intermediate grades. The main object for 
doing this work in the lower grades is to re-enforce the work 
along other lines ; to give the pupil some preparation for the 
formal study of. these subjects in the higher grades ; and to 
give those pupils who must leave school before they reach the 
more advanced grammar grades some knowledge of American 
history. The plan as outlined below makes most of this work 
a part of the work on the other subjects. As arranged, the 
elementary work on history and civics constitutes much of the 
language work, and provides much excellent material for the 
pupil's general reading. This correlation economizes the time 
of the teacher and pupil, and tends to prevent an overcrowd- 
ing of the course of study. 

THIRD-YBAR GRADE 

All the work here outlined for the third grade is to be pre- 
sented orally by the teacher. After the teacher has presented 
the topic of the month in story form, different pupils should be 
required to stand and retell the story. Either before or after 
this oral retelling of the story by different members of the class, 
a pupil should be required to pass to the blackboard and write 
the story as the class reconstructs it. This constitutes the best 



16 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

possible work on language, and usually secures the active inter- 
est and co-operation of every pupil. Under the sympathetic 
guidance of the teacher, each pupil, by actual practice, is learn- 
ing how to use capitals and the simpler marks of punctuation ; 
he is learning something about the use and selection of words, 
and about paragraphing and other princi])les of language con- 
struction. As the pupils reconstruct the story for the pupil at 
the board, they should be led by the teacher to discuss and to 
apply these simpler principles of constructive grammar, and to 
learn new ones as the complexity of their language requires 
their use. After the different pupils have retold the story 
orally, and after the class has reconstructed it on the board as 
indicated above, each pupil should be required to reproduce it 
in the form of a composition, and nothing but his best work 
should be accepted by the teacher. From the standpoint of 
language, the work on one history is of much more value to the 
pupil than would be a dozen lessons like those contained in the 
average language book. This work on the history stories, 
together with similar work on literature stories, and on original 
compositions on other subjects, should constitute nearly all the 
language work in the first six grades of the elementary schools, 
and a large part of that work in the seventh and eighth grades. 
In presenting the history work of each month, the teacher 
should weave it into story form and make it just as interesting 
as possible. It should always be borne in mind, however, that 
the stories or talks of the teacher on each topic should be true 
to historical fact. The talks on the topics of the first and 
second months — Government in the Home and Government in 
the School — should impress on the pupil the necessity and object 
of government. It may be rather difficult to present these two 
topics in story form, but the work on civics should begin with 
the child's personal environment. In the fourth grade the work 
on civics deals with city, county, and district government, and 
in the fifth grade with state government. The work on civics 
in these three grades should give the pupil a general idea of 
local and state government, and prepare him for the more 
formal study of government in the seventh and eighth grades. 
The other topics of this grade can be presented easily in story 



In the Loii'cr Grades 17 

form of the most interesting nature. The pupil will be deeply 
interested in the origin of Thanksgiving and the conditions 
under which the Pilgrims ate the first Thanksgiving dinner. 
The topic of the fourth month, the Story of Christmas, can 
be presented in story form along the same general lines. The 
boyhood of Washington, Franklin, Lincoln, and Grant can be 
made most interesting to children in story form, and will intro- 
duce them to the most interesting periods of our history. 

FIRST MONTH 
Talks on Government in the Home 

SECOND MONTH 
Talks on Government in the Schools 



Thanksgiving 



Christmas 



THIRD MONTH 



FOURTH MONTH 



FIFTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Washington 

SIXTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Franklin 

SEVENTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Lincoln 

EIGHTH MONTH 
Boyhood of Grant 



18 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

FOURTH-YEAR GRADE 

In sttidyin.G^ the topic of the first montli, the pupils will be 
very much interested in talkint^ with their parents and others 
about the life and hardships of the early settlers of the neigh- 
borhood and county. They should be encouraged to secure all 
the information possible in order that they may become fairly 
familiar with the early history of their county and city. The 
topics of the second month, Local Government, should receive 
careful consideration. The pupils should secure a good idea 
of the government of the school district and city. They should 
learn how school districts are formed ; how school trustees and 
members of city boards of education are elected ; how teachers 
are elected; the object for maintaining schools; and why par- 
ents are so willing to be taxed for the support of the public 
school system. From this month's work the pupil should also 
learn about county and city government. He should learn how 
county and city officers are elected, and the general duties of 
the same. Some of the pupils will no doubt be acquainted 
with some of the county and city officials, and this personal 
element should be emphasized as much as possible. It is not 
supposed, of course, that the pupils will secure a thorough 
knowledge of local government from this month's work, but 
they should secure a general idea of the same and should have 
created in them a desire to learn more about the government 
of the school district, county, and city. The history work of 
the other six months of this grade is to be presented as indi- 
cated by the suggestions on the third-grade work. 

FIRST MONTH 
Early History of the Neighborhood and County 

SECOND MONTH 

Local Government 

THIRD MONTH 

Columbus 



In the Lozvcr Grades 

FOURTH MONTH 



19 



Sir Walter Raleigh 



Captain John Smith 



Miles Standish 



William Penn 



Daniel Boone 



FIFTH MONTH 



SIXTH MONTH 



SEVENTH MONTH 



EIGHTH MONTH 



FIFTH -YEAR GRADE 

The history work for this grade should deal with English 
history and with the history of the state in which the pupil 
lives. An interesting book on each of these subjects should be 
selected. It may be difficult in some cases to find a suitable 
book for the work on state history, but there are a number of 
books on English history that have been prepared especially 
for intermediate grade work. The one selected should cover 
the subject judiciously and should be true to historical fact. 
All the history material for this grade should be made a part 
of the subject-matter of the regular reading course. The 
treatment of this material should be in accordance with the 
suggestions on the work of the third grade, and should be 
made to constitute an important part of the pupil's language 
work. During one month of this grade the government of the 
state in which the pupil lives should receive careful considera- 
tion. From the time devoted to this subject the pupil should 
understand the object of state government and the reasons for 
dividing it into the legislative, executive, and judicial depart- 



20 HISTORY AND CIVICS 

ments. He should learn the ofificial titles of the dififerent state 
officers, how they are elected, and the general powers and 
duties of each. 

SIXTH -YEAR GRADE 

The history work of this grade should be of such a nature 
as to give the pupil valuable knowledge of the early history of 
the nation, and to create in him a desire to read history. This 
is deemed very important because many pupils never attend 
school after this grade. The work of the sixth year should 
also lay a good foundation for the formal study of history in 
the seventh and eighth years. The material selected for secur- 
ing these results should be interesting and of a biographical- 
narrative nature. It is recommended that this material be made 
a part of the subject-matter for the regular reading course, 
but that the topics be treated in accordance with the sugges- 
tions on the work of the third grade. This correlation tends 
to check the all too prevalent habit of crowding too much work 
into the elementary schools. 



SEVENTH -YEAR GRADE 



INTRODUCTORY 

(In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the 
first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1-53.) 

A CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY 
OF AMERICA 

I Ancient Ideas oe the World 

D. 2 ; M. 1-2 

II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack oe 

Civilization 
D. 2. 

III Conditions in Europe Hindering Exploration 

D. 3. 

IV Conditions LEi\DiNG To Exploration 

D. 3-5. 

1. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

D. 5-6 ; Mc. 9-10 ; Ma. 2-3 ; G. 1-2 

2. Need of New Trade Routes 

D. 6-8 ; Mc. 10-11 ; Ma. 4 ; T. 7-9 ; M. 49. 

B DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 8-13; H. I. 4-6. 10-19; Mc. 11-14, 17-22; Ma. 
6-16; G. 2-6, 8, 12-17; T. 7-16; M. 14-18; 23-27, 
28-31 

II English Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 13-14 ; H. I. 7-8, 23-25 ; Mc. 14, 26-29 ; Ma. 13, 
17-21; G. 6-7, 19-24; T. 11, 14-16; M. 18-20, 
33-38 

III French Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 14-16; Mc. 26-29; Ma. 16-17; G. 89-94; T. 
16-17; M. 27-28, 31-33 



24 LNTRODUCTORY 

IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 16; H. I. 10; Mc. 2G-29 ; Ma. 4-5; G. 7-8; T. 
12; M. 20-22 

V Dutch Discoveries and Explorations 

D. 17; Mc. 36-39; G. 64-68; T. 22-23; M. 67-69 

C DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW 
WORLD 
D. 17-19 

D DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 

I Spain's Early Supremacy on the Sea 

D. 19 

II Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

D. 19-21 

E THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

I Origin of the Name 

D. 21 ; Mc. 06 ; Ma. 21 ; T. 11 ; M. 15 

II Classification According to Civilization 

D. 21-24; Mc. 68; Ma. 24; G. 76-77; T. 1-6 

1. Savage Indians 

2. Barbarous Indians 

3. Half-Civilized Indians 

III Appearance and Manner of Living 

D. 24; H. I. 95-97, 116-119, 121-125; H. II. 

72-76; Mc. 66-68; Ma. 23-24; G. 78-85; T. 1-4; 
M. 40-44 

IV Character * 

D. 25; H. I. 113-114. 116-119; Mc. 69-70; Ma. 
22-23; G. 77; M. 45-46 



INTRODUCTORY 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 

AMERICA 

I Ancient Idkas Concerning the World 

Although the New World has existed and has been 
inhabited by mankind and by the lower animals for many 
thousands of years, it was totally unknown to the people of 
the Old World until a little more than four hundred years 
ago. For more than six thousand years the people of 
Europe believed that the earth was flat, and that it was 
covered with water except that part occupied by Europe, 
Asia, and Africa. They had no idea that North America, 
South America, and Australia existed. They did not even 
know how large Asia and Africa were. Some of them 
were acquainted with western Asia and northern Africa, 
but they did not know how far these continents extended. 
Marco Polo and a few others had visited China and had 
heard of Japan, but this was all that the people of Europe 
knew of eastern Asia, and they knew still less about 
southern Africa. Although great civilized nations had 
existed around the shores of the Mediterranean Sea for 
probably more than six thousand years, the people of these 
nations thought that the earth was many times smallei' 
than it is. They believed that there was nothing but dark- 
ness and terrors beyond the small part which they knew 
about, and that evil spirits and great monsters would 
destroy any one who ventured into this unknown space. 

II False Ideas of the World Not Due to Lack of Civili- 

zation 

This wrong idea which the people of Europe had for so 
many thousand years, regarding the extent of the land and 
the shape of the earth, was not due to lack of a high state 
of civilization. The people of Greece more than twenty- 



26 INTRODUCTORY 

three hundred years ago and the people of Rome more 
than two thousand years ago were much better educated 
than were the people of Europe four hundred years ago, 
when Columbus discovered the New World. The civiliza- 
tions which these ancient Greeks and Romans produced 
excelled in many ways the civilization which existed in 
Europe during the time of Columbus. The literature, the 
sculpture, and the fine, noble buildings produced by them 
have never yet been excelled, and in some things along 
these lines we cannot do as well as was done in ancient 
Greece and Rome. 

Ill Conditions in EuRorE Hindering Exploration 

While the people of Europe at the time the New World 
was discovered were not so intelligent along many lines 
as were the Greeks and Romans, they lived under condi- 
tions which would cause them to think more about the 
extent of the land and the shape of the earth, and hence 
they would naturally have a greater desire to find out the 
truth about these matters. The Greeks and Romans occu- 
pied the peninsulas of Italy and Greece, which together 
are not so large as the state of Texas, and less than onc- 
twenty-seventh as large as the rest of Europe. Half- 
civilized people lived in all the other parts of Europe 
except those parts conquered by Rome. The Greeks and 
Romans were kept busy defending themselves against 
these people and were finally compelled to submit to them. 
They had all they could do to learn about Europe and the 
other continents around the Mediterranean Sea, without 
trying to explore the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and they 
seem to have had no desire to do so. Aristotle, a Greek 
philosopher who lived twenty-two hundred years ago, be- 
lieved that the earth was round and that eastern Asia could 
be reached by sailing west from western Europe. Some 
other philosophers who lived between the time of Aristotle 
and the discovery of America had the same idea, but the 
people of Greece and Rome, and later those in the rest of 
Europe, were too busy with the aflFairs and conditions in 



Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America 27 

the Old World to think seriously about these ideas, or to 
attempt to put them into practice by sailing west out over 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

IV Conditions Leading To Exploration 

It was quite different a little more than four hundred 
years ago when the New World was discovered. More 
people lived in Europe then than ever before, and through 
natural advancement and the influence of Greek and 
Roman laws, literature, and ideas, all Europe had become 
civilized. Having occupied all of Europe, having become 
more intelligent and progressive, it is but natural that 
many of the practical and educated men of Europe, as well 
as the philosophers, should ask themselves the question — 
what lies beyond the water? This desire to know more 
about the size and shape of the earth, together with the 
improvement in shipbuilding and the practical use of "the 
compass for the purpose of navigation, would soon have 
led to the exploration of the Atlantic and Pacific oceans 
and to the discovery of America, even if the condition of 
commerce, which is discussed below, had not made the 
business men of Europe extremely anxious to secure some 
new way by which they could reach the rich products of 
India and eastern Asia. 

1. Increasing Importance of Commerce 

The Greeks and Romans traded a great deal with the 
people of Asia, but when the Roman Empire was de- 
stroyed about fourteen hundred years ago by the half- 
civilized people of central Europe, this commerce was 
almost ruined. During the seven hundred years from 
the time of the fall of the Roman Empire (476 A. D.) 
to 1200 A. D., Europe traded very little with Asia, the 
people of Europe being only half-civilized. About six 
hundred years ago the people of Europe had become 
settled in well organized governments, were becoming 
better civilized and educated, and were becoming better 
acquainted with Asia and the things produced there. 



28 INTRODUCTORY 

The merchants of Europe began to trade the woods, 
metals, and other things which it produced to the people 
of Asia for the spices, pearls, silk, gems, and other things 
which they produced. V>y 1 \()i) A. D. this trade had 
increased until it constituted a great commerce or inter- 
change of products between the peoples of Europe and 
Asia. Great commercial cities grew up, whose prosper- 
ity depended largely on this commerce. \'enice and 
Genoa were two of the most important of these cities, 
and their merchants carried on an immense trade with 
Asia. From the commercial cities on the coast, the rich 
products of Asia were sent inland to the different parts 
of Europe, and naturally there was an increasing 
demand for these comforts and luxuries. 

2. Need of Xcw Trade Routes 

The goods which Europe sent to Asia and which Asia 
sent to Europe had to be carried by ships and by cara- 
vans over one of three routes. These routes were by 
way of the Black and Caspian seas and thence overland 
to India ; across Syria to the Persian Gulf and thence 
by ship to India ; and by way of Egypt to the Red Sea 
and thence by ship to India. Now it so happened that 
the Turks, during the time that this trade between 
Europe and Asia was increasing, were gradually over- 
running the western part of Asia, which included the 
territory over which these trade routes passed. The 
Turks made it a regular business to capture the caravans 
conveying these goods and to murder those in charge. 
By 1400 A. D. they had almost destroyed the great 
commerce between Asia and Europe. It became neces- 
sary to give up this trade or find some new route over 
which the goods might be conveyed. This caused the 
merchants and sailors of Europe to give the question 
of finding a new route serious consideration. Some 
maintained that if the earth were round, eastern Asia 
could be reached by sailing west from Europe. Among 
this number was Christopher Columbus. On the third 



Discoveries and Explorations 29 

day of August, 1492, he sailed from Palos, Spain, with 
three small ships and ninety men to test the correctness 
of this theory. Other men had talked and philosophized 
about the earth being round, but Columbus was the first 
to test a scientific theory by bidding good-by to the 
known world, sailing out into unknown seas and facing 
the terrors which superstition for ages had planted in 
the mind of man. It was an act as brave as history 
records. The trackless ocean was his highway ; faith in 
a scientific theory his guiding star. 

DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

I Spanish Discoveries and Explorations 

The Spanish people discovered and explored most of 
the West Indian Islands, Florida, the southwestern part 
of the United States, Mexico, Central America, and South 
America, except Brazil. The principal Spanish explorers 
. whose work had direct relation to the United States or 
to determining the extent and shape of the earth were 
Columbus, Ponce de Leon, Balboa, Magellan and De Soto. 

II English Discoveries and Explorations 

The English discovered and explored the eastern part 
of North America from Florida to Canada. The principal 
English explorers were the Cabots, Drake, Gilbert, and 
Raleigh. 

III French Discoveries and Explorations 

The French explored the larger part of the Mississippi 
Valley and the eastern part of Canada, including the 
region of the Great Lakes. The principal French explorers 
were Cartier, Champlain, Marquette, Joliet, and La Salle. 

IV Portuguese Discoveries and Explorations 

The Portuguese made no explorations in North Amer- 
ica, but Americus Vespucius, while in the employ of the 
King of Portugal, explored the coast of Brazil in South 
America. 



36 INTRODUCTORY 

V Dutch Discovkriks and Explorations 

Holland explored and settled the present state of New 
York. Henry Hudson was the principal explorer. 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

It was customary for the captain of a ship or the commander 
of a fleet when he discovered land in the New World, to take 
possession of it in the name of his sovereii^n. Thus the na- 
tions of Europe based their claims to territory on the "right of 
discovery." It was on this so-called right that Spain claimed 
most of the \\'est Indies, all of South America except Brazil, 
Central America, Mexico, Florida, and the Southwestern part 
of the United States ; England, the Atlantic Coast from Can- 
ada to Florida ; France, all the territory drained by the Mis- 
sissippi and the St. Lawrence aiid their tributaries ; Holland. 
New York ; and Portugal, Pirazil. England granted her ter- 
ritory in North y\merica to companies and to individuals, and 
established some crown colonies, which were under the direct 
control of the sovereign. Many of these grants made by the 
English sovereigns were described as extending from "sea to 
sea," that is from the Atlantic to the Pacific. As these grants 
did not always extend due east and west, they frequently over- 
lapped, and in after years caused considerable trouble owing 
to conflicting claims. 

DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 
I Spain's Early Supremacy on tiik Sf.a 

For more than eighty years after the discovery of 
America, Spain was the most powerful nation of the 
world. She was practically mistress of the seas, having 
a larger navy than any other nation. This gave her an 
immense advantage in securing lands and forming settle- 
ments in the New World. So long as she was stronger 
on the seas than any other nation, she could control, to 
a large extent, the development of America. She had 
secured far more of this new territory than any other 



Decline of Spanish Power 31 

nation. She was obtaining a large amount of money 
from the mines of Mexico and Peru. All this tended to 
increase her influence in both Europe and America. 

II Defeat of the Spanish Armada 

But Spain was soon to lose this proud leadership among 
the nations of the world. England sent an army to assist 
Holland in its attempt to regain independence from Spain. 
Sir Francis Drake and other bold English sea captains 
captured the Spanish treasure ships which were on their 
way from Mexico and Peru. They even sailed into the 
Spanish harbors and destroyed vessels in sight of the 
people. Drake called these acts "singeing the King of 
Spain's beard." These acts so enraged the Spanish King, 
Phillip II, that he determined to invade England and an- 
nex it to his kingdom. In 1588 he collected a fleet of 
about one hundred and fifty ships which carried more than 
three thousand cannon. This fleet was considered so 
powerful that it was called the Invincible Armada. It 
was thought by many military men on the continent of 
Europe that England would be conquered. The English 
people were thoroughly aroused ; but they were not fright- 
ened. They were putting forth every effort to collect a 
fleet with which to meet the Armada. The English navy 
contained but thirty-eight ships, and most of these were 
small and poorly equipped. But the merchants gave their 
ships freely for the purpose of defense, and a fleet was 
collected though it was not so large nor well equipped as 
the Spanish fleet. Lord Effingham, Drake, Hawkins and 
other English sea captains were placed in command. No 
greater sea fighters than some of these men ever lived. 
The Spanish commanders did not compare with them in 
ability. When the Invincible Armada entered the En- 
glish channel, the English fleet did not make a direct at- 
tack, but hung on its flanks, destroying ship after ship, 
and in a long running fight drove the Armada through 
the channel into the North Sea. The defeated Spaniards 
could not return to Spain through the English Channel, 



32 INTRODUCTORY 

and were forced to sail around the north of Scotland 
where storms destroyed so many of their ships that not 
more than one-third of them finally reached Spain. This 
crushing defeat of the Invincible Armada had a most im- 
portant bearing on the history of the New World. It 
marked the beginning of Spain's decline on both land and 
sea. It also marks the beginning of England as a sea 
power. She soon became mistress of the seas and has 
since held this position. All this meant that England and 
not Spain should have most to do in shaping the growth 
of America. From this time on France was England's 
only serious competitor in colonizing North America. 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 

I Origin of Name; 

When Columbus discovered the New World he thought 
it a part of .\sia. He thought the islands a part of tlie 
East Indies, and accordingly called the inhabitants In- 
dians. The name was afterwards applied to all the na- 
tive inhabitants of America. 

II Classification According to Civilization 

1. Savage Indians 

The savage Indians lived in North America. They 
occupied Alaska, all the Rocky Mountain region except 
part of Arizona and New ]\Iexico, all the territory west 
of these mountains, and the territory in the north be- 
tween Hudson Bay and the Pacific ocean. They were 
divided into several tribes, among the more important 
being the Apache. 

2. Barbarous Indians 

The barbarous Indians also lived in North America. 
In the United States they occupied all the country east 
of the Rocky Mountains, and in Canada all the coun- 
try south and east of Hudson Bay. The only Indians 
who had any real influence on the history of the United 
States occupied the territory between the Mississippi 



The America)! Indian 33 

River and the Atlantic Ocean. They are divided into 
three general divisions or races, IMaskoki, Iroquois and 
Algonquin. Each division or race consisted of a num- 
ber of tribes, each tribe of a number of clans, and each 
clan was composed of a number of families. Each 
race spoke a different language. The Maskokis occu- 
pied all of the southern states east of the Mississippi, 
except a portion of Tennessee and North Carolina. 
They included a number of tribes, the more important 
ones being the Creeks, Choctaws and Chickasaws. 
The Iroquois race was the strongest one in North 
America, and it had more influence on the history of 
the United States than any other. It occupied New 
York, Pennsylvania, the country between Lakes Huron 
and Erie, the northeastern part of Ohio, and the larger 
portion of North Carolina, and Tennessee. The more 
important tribes of this race were the Five Nations in 
New York, the Hurons north of Lake Erie, and the 
Cherokees of Tennessee. The Algonquin race occu- 
pied all the country east of the Mississippi between 
Tennessee and North Carolina on the south, to Lab- 
rador on the north, except that part occupied by the 
Iroquois. The more important tribes of this race were 
the Powhatans of Virginia, the Delawares of Delaware, 
and the Mohegans and Narragansetts of New England. 

3. Half-Ck'iliced Indians 

The half-civilized Indians occupied the mountain re- 
gions from New Mexico to Chih'. Among the more 
important races were the Pueblos of Arizona and New 
Mexico, the Aztecs of Mexico, and the Incas of Peru. 
They built cities and temples, constructed military 
roads, raised various products, and made fine cloth. 

Ill Appearance and Manner oe Living 

All American Indians were alike in some respects. 
They had black hair, black eyes, a copper-colored skin, 
high cheek bones, and no beard. The barbarous Indians 
raised some agricultural products, but secured most of 

3 



S4 INTRODUCTORY 

their food by huntings and fishing. They Hved in hnts 
and wigwams, and the women did most of the hard work. 
This mode of hving^ required a large territory for a small 
number of people, and therefore the number of Indians 
was always small. 

IV Character 

Although the Indian was kind and hospitable to friends, 
he was by nature, cruel, revengeful and treacherous. He 
was brave and would suffer torture without complaint, but 
in war he used all the tactics of a coward, never making 
a fair open fight if he could avoid it. He delighted in 
torturing prisoners, and in murdering women and chil- 
dren. In domestic life he was lazy and filthy. But with 
all these faults he was intelligent, proud and haughty, and 
could never be enslaved. 

QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO THE DISCOVERY OF 
AMERICA 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(Tn connection with the questions wliich follow, each pupil should 
read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American His- 
tory," pp. 1-53. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) 
Tell what the people of the Old World for a long time believed 
about the shape and size of the earth. For about how long did 
the people have these wrong ideas? How much of the world was 
known before the New World was discovered? (Each pupil 
should draw a map of the world as known before the time of Co- 
lumbus.) Describe the civilization of ancient Greece and Rome. 
How docs this civilization tend to prove that the failure to dis- 
cover the New World long before it was discovered was not due 
to ignorance on the part of the people of Europe? Explain fully 
the conditions which caused the Greeks and Romans to take so 
little interest in learning more about the shape and size of the 
earth. What efifect did the barbarian invasions have on the civ- 
ilization of southern Europe? Before the time of Columbus, what 
conditions prevented the people of the other nations of Europe 
from discovering the New World? What did some of the phil- 
osophers who lived during this long period believe regarding 



Questions and Topics 35 

the shape and size of the earth? Explain carefully how the gen- 
eral advance in education and civilization made the people of 
Europe anxious to learn more about these things. Give a care- 
ful discussion of the growth of commerce up to about the time 
Columbus discovered America. Explain how commerce was car- 
ried on between Europe and Asia. Explain carefully what inter- 
fered with this valuable commerce. Explain fully in what way 
this led to the discovery of America. (Each pupil should draw 
a map that will show the three trade routes between Europe and 
India, and that part of those routes that fell into the hands of 
the Turks.) 

DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

For what was Columbus searching when he made his voyage in 
1492? Discuss his four voyages to the New World. Explain why 
he and other men in Europe were disappointed at the result of his 
discoveries and explorations. Who were the Northmen? When 
did they visit America? What part of America did they visit? 
Why are they not considered the real discoverers of the New 
World? Why were their voyages to America not very important? 
Describe the discoveries and explorations of Balboa. Describe 
the discoveries and explorations of Magellan. Describe the 
discoveries and explorations of Ponce de Leon. Of De Soto. 
Describe the voyages and explorations of the Cabots. Of what 
value were these explorations to England? Give a description of 
Drake's voyage around the world. Describe the attempt of Gilbert 
and Raleigh to establish a colony in the New World. Describe 
the work of Cartier. Give a description of the explorations of 
Champlain. Tell what you can of the work of Joliet and Mar- 
quette. Give a description of La Salle's work. Why was the New 
World called America instead of being named for Columbus? 
Tell what you can of Henry Hudson and his work. (Each pupil 
should draw a map that will show plainly the route of each of the 
explorers and the part of the New World discovered and ex- 
plored by each nation.) 

DISPOSITION OF TERRITORY IN THE NEW WORLD 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the "Right of Discovery?" What part of the new 
World did Spain claim by this right? What did England claim? 
What part did France claim? What territory in America did 
other nations claim by the right of discovery? How did England 
dispose of her territory in the New World? Why did this cause 



36 INTRODUCTORY 

trouble in later years? (Each pupil should draw a map of North 
and South America, and indicate on said map the territory that 
was claimed by each of the European nations that claimed any of 
this territory.) 

DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER 
Questions for Class Recitations 

How did the power of Spain compare with that of other nations 
at the time of Columbus? How did this help her in America? 
How did Spain's possessions in America help build up her influ- 
ence in Europe? How did the English sea captains injure Spain, 
and who were the most noted of these captains? Why did the 
king of Spain make war on England? Describe the Invincible 
Armada. How did the English fleet compare with the Spanish 
fleet? Which nation had the better commanders? Describe the 
battle between the Armada and the English fleet. What was the 
effect of the defeat of the Invincible Armada on Spain? What 
effect did it have on England's sea power? How did this affect 
North America? 

THE AMERICAN INDIAN 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Why were the native inhabitants of America called Indians? 
What is the difference between savage and barbarous Indians? 
Between barbarous and half-civilized Indians? Where did the 
savage Indians live? What part of America did the barbarous 
Indians inhabit? Into what races were the barbarous Indians 
divided? Where did each race live? How did these races differ? 
Name the most important tribes of each race of the barbarous 
Indians. Where did the half-civilized Indians live? How did they 
differ from the savage and barbarous Indians? What Indians 
had the most influence on the history of the United States, the 
savage, the barbarous, or the half-civilized? Why was this? (Each 
pupil should draw a map that will show plainly the territory 
which the savage and barbarous Indians occupied in North Amer- 
ica. This map should also show plainly the territory occupied by 
each race and tribe of the barbarous Indians that lived east of the 
Mississippi.) In what ways were all North American Indians alike? 
Tell all you can about the way they lived. Why were there not 
more Indians in so large a country? Describe the nature and 
habits of the Indian. Why did the white man not make slaves of 
the Indians as he did of the negroes? 



Questions and Topics 37 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the conditions that prevented the discovery of the New 
World before the time of Cohimbus. Discuss the conditions that 
led to the discovery of America. Discuss the voyages of the North- 
men to America. Discuss the Spanish discoveries and explora- 
tions. Discuss the English explorations. Compare the explora- 
tions of the Spanish with those of the English in respect to loca- 
tion and importance. How do the French explorations compare 
with those of the Spanish and English? Discuss the claims of the 
various nations to the territory of the New World. Discuss the 
decline of Spanish power and its effect on America. Compare the 
savage, barbarous and half-civilized Indians in respect to civiliza- 
tion and location. Describe the appearance of the American 
Indian and his manner of living. Discuss the character of the 
Indian. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

(In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read 
the first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 55-163.) 

A THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

I Virginia 

1. Origin 

D. 32-34 ; Mc. 20-32 ; Ma. 25-27 ; G. 26-27 ; T. 
19-21 ; M. 52-57 

2. Character of Early Settlers 

D. 34; H. I. 175-177; Mc. 27-30, 97-98; G. 
27-29 ; M. 57-58 

3. Origin of Representative Government in America 

D. 34-35; Mc. 33; Ma. 30, 32-33; G. 33; T. 
22 ; M. 59-60 

4. Virginia Made a Royal Province 

D. 36; Mc. 34; Ma. 35-36; T. 39-40; M. 62 

5. Quarrels Betzveen the People and the Royal Gov- 

ernors. 
D. 37 ; Ma. 36-39 

6. ySir Williaui Berkeley 

D. 37 ; Ma. 36-39 ; G. 35 ; M. 62-65 

7. Bacon's Rebellion 

D. 38; Ma. 39-40; G. 35-36; T. 40-41; M. 
65-66 

II Maryland 
1. Origin 

D. 39; H. I. 143-146; Mc. 34-36; Ma. 41-1 '2 ; 
G. 37-38; T. 36-37; M. 103-104 



Origin, GroT^ili and Political History 39 

2. Nature of Government 

D. 40 ; Mc. 35 ; Ma. 43-43 ; G. 38 ; T. 37-38 ; 
M. 105 

3. Religions Disputes 

D. 40; Mc. 35-36; Ma. 43-45; T. 38-39; M. 
105-107 

Jir North and South Carolina 

1. Origin 

D. 41; Mc. 54-55; Ma. 45; T. 42-44; M. 
113-115 

2 Character of Colonies 

D. 41 ; Ma. 47-49, 97; T. 44; M. 115 

3. Government 

D. 42; Ma. 46-47; T. 42-43; M. 115-116 

IV Georgia 

1. Origin: Character of Settlers 

D. 42; Mc. 57-58; Ma. 49-52; T. 57; M. 
122-124 

2. Government 

D. 43 ; T. 57-58 ; M. 125-126 

B NEW ENGLAND 

I Origin and Growth in Population 

1. Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay Colonies 

(a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists 

D. 44; Mc 40; Ma. 53; G. 41-42; M. 

76-77 

(b) Persecution of Puritans and Separatists 

D. 45; H. I. 180-181; Mc. 41; Ma. 53-54; 
G. 42-43 ; T. 24 ; M. 77 



40 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

(c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

D. 45-lG; H. I. 133-13(;; Mc. 41-4G; Ma. 
54-57 ; G. 44-45 ; T. 25-28 ; M. 78-83 

(d) The Foundini^ of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

D. 47; H. I. 25-28, 136-140; Ma. 57- 
59 ; G. 46-50 ; T. 28-30 ; M. 82-85 

2. Connecticut and New Haven 

D. 48; Mc. 50-51; Ma. 61, 72-73; G. 50-52; 
T. 35-36; M. 98-99, 101 

3. Rhode Island 

D. 48; Mc. 49-50; Ma. 61-75; G. 52-56; T. 
33-35 ; M. 86-88 

4. A^ezv Hainpsliire and Maine 

D. 49-50; Mc. 47-48; Ma. 69-70; T. 36; M. 
96-98 

II Government in Early Nkvv England 

1. Tlic Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church 

and State 
D. 50; Mc. 48; Ma. 59; T. 32-33; M. 62- 
63, 86, 96 

2. Local Government: The Town Meeting 

D. 51 ; M. 81, 96 

3. Govcrmnent Under the Charters 

D. 52-53; Mc. 46-50; Ma. 67, 69; T. 31-33; 
M. 85-86 

4. Neiv England Confederacy 

(a) Origin 

D. 51; Mc. 51-52; Ma. 64-65; G. 56; 
T. 64; M. 90 

(b) Nature 

D. 54 ; Mc. 52 ; T. 65 ; M. 90 

(c) Defects and \'aluc 

D. 55 ; T. 65 ; M. 90 



Origin, Groidli and Political History 41 

Til Relations oi? the English with the Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

D. 55 ; H. I. 23-30 ; Ma. GG ; G. 4G ; T. G3 ; 
M. 81-82 

2. The Pequod War 

D. 56-58; Mc. 71; Ma. 71; G. 8G; T. G-l ; M. 
88, 99-100. 

3. The Indians and the Puritans 

D. 58-59 ; Mc. 71 ; T. G2-G3 ; M. 83 

4. King Philip's War 

D. 59-GO ; Mc. 72 ; Ma. G6 ; G. 87-89 ; T. G5-G6, 
M. 93-94 

IV Under the Royal Governors 

1. Annulling of the Charter of Massachttsetts Bay 

Colony 

(a) First Attack on Charter 

D. Gl ; G. 58-59 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

D. 61 ; T. 70 

(c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massa- 

chusetts 
D. 62 ; M. 95 

(d) The Charter Annulled 

D. 63-64 ; Mc. 53 ; M. 95 

2. The Despotic Ride of Andros. 

D. 64; Ma. 68, 74; G. 60-61 ; T. 72-75; M. 95 

3. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and 

Connecticut 
D. 64-65; Mc. 52-53; T. 34, 75; M. 102 

4. Overthrozv of King and Andros 

D. 65-66 

5. Nezv En inland from i6Sq to 7/66 

D. 66- Mc. 53; T. 75; M. 95. 97-98 



43 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

C THE MIDDLE COLONIES 

I New York 

1. Discovery and Settlement 

D. 06-07 ; Mc. 3G-39 ; Ma. 77-78 ; G. G4-GG ; M. 
67-70 

2. Character of the Colonists 

D. 68; H. I. 174; Mc. 38, 102; Ma. 77, 97, 
T. ^8; M. 70-72 

3. Goi'erninent Under the Dutch 

D. 68; Ma. 7!)-83 ; G. 66-68; M. 71-73 

4. The Colony Under English Control 

D. 69-70 ; Mc. 55 ; Ma. 83-85 ; G. 68-69 ; T. 46 ; 
M. 74 

5. Under the Royal Governors 

D. 71; Ma. 84-85; G. 69-70; T. 47-48 

II Ni;\v Jersey 

1. Origin 

D. 71: Mc. 55; Ma. 86-87; T. 49; M. 75 

2. Political History 

D. 71; Mc.55; Ma. 87-89; T. 19-50; M. 
75-76 

III Delaware 

D. 72; Ale. 56-57: Ma. 85-86; T. 56-57; M. 
111-113 

IV Pennsyia'ania 

1. Origin 

D. 72-74; Mc. 55-56; Ma. 89-90; G. 71; T. 
52-53; M. 118 

2. Settlenient and Groivth 

D. 74 ; Ma. 91-94 ; G. 72, 73 ; T. 54-56 ; M. 119, 
122 

3. Goirrnnient 

D. 75 ; Ma. 95 ; G. 73 ; T. 54-57 : H. 120 

4. The Province Under Deputy Governors 

D. 76 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

ORIGIN, GROWTH AND POLITICAL HISTORY 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 
Virginia 

1. Origin 

In 1G06 James I, King of England, granted the land 
from about Cape Fear to the mouth of the Potomac 
river to a company of London merchants called the 
London Company. This company sent out colonists 
who in 1607 founded Jamestown, this being the first 
permanent English settlement in America. The colony 
did not prosper at first but was saved from total de- 
struction by the work of John Smith, and later put on 
its feet by the arrival of Lord Delaware with provis- 
ions and about five hundred more settlers. The colony 
now became firmly established, and more colonists came 
over every year. By 1630 there were more than four 
thousand ; in 1670 there were more than forty thousand ; 
and in 1750 this number had increased to more than five 
hundred thousand. 

2. Character of Early Settlers 

The London Company was organized for the purpose 
of making money, and the earliest settlers came over for 
the same purpose. Very few of them intended to make 
homes and remain here permanently. Some called 
themselves gentlemen ; some were criminals from the 
jails of England ; and many were lazy and worthless. 
These men were governed by men appointed by the 
company. Captain John Smith and Sir Thomas Dale 
being the ablest of these early governors. Gradually 
a better class of men came into the colony. They came 
from the better class in England and came for the pur- 
pose of making homes for themselves and their fam- 
ilies. 



44 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

o. Origin of Representative Guvcrnuicnl in America 

By 1G19 the population of Virginia had reached four 
thousand. Most of these settlers were from the middle 
class of England and were accustomed to help make 
their laws and to levy their own taxes. They now 
asked the London Company to allow them to elect a 
body of men to help make the laws. Their request was 
granted and a legislative body called the House of 
Burgesses was elected by the settlers. This was the 
first law-making body elected in America. 

4. Virginia Made a Royal Province 

The London Company came to be very powerful, and 
was controlled by the Puritans who were the political 
and religious enemies of King James L Accordingly 
he had the company's charter annulled, and in 1624 Vir- 
ginia became a royal province, whose governor was ap- 
pointed by the king. The people still elected the House 
of Burgesses which helped make the laws. 

5. Quarrels Betzcecn the People and the Royal Governors 
During nearly all the time that Virginia was a royal 

province (1G24 to 1776) there was contention be- 
tween the king and the royal governors on the one side 
and the colonists on the other, as to whether the latter 
should have any voice in law making. The kings and 
the royal governors wished to do away with the power 
of the House of Burgesses, but the people would not 
permit it. The constant friction between the people 
and the royal governors tended to cause the colonists 
to lose their respect and love for England, and this was 
indirectly one of the causes which led to the Revolu- 
tionary War. 

G. Sir IVilliani Berkeley 

One of the most important of the royal governors of 
Virginia was Sir William r>erkeley. His long rule was 
noted especially for two things : the large immigration 
of English colonists, and his steady opposition to the 



Origin, Grozcfh and Political History 45 

rights of the people. He was, perhaps, the most tyran- 
nical of the royal governors. 

7. Bacon s Rebellion 

Governor Berkeley's refusal to protect the people on 
the frontier from Indian raids forced them to defend 
themselves. Nathaniel Bacon organized a force for this 
purpose, and for this was declared a rebel by Berkeley. 
After Bacon's death Berkeley regained his power and 
punished Bacon's followers with such severity that the 
people W'Cre still more aroused against the oppressive 
rule of the royal governors. 

II Maryland 

1. Origin 

King Charles I granted to George Calvert, Lord Balti- 
more, the territory including the present states of INIary- 
land and Delaware. Lord Baltimore's purpose was to 
provide a home for English Catholics. Two hundred 
colonists came over in 163-i and foimded the town of St. 
Mary's, near the mouth of the Potomac. In 1G88 the 
population of the colony had increased to about twenty- 
five thousand, and in 1700 there were more than one 
hundred forty-five thousand people living in Maryland. 

2. Nature of Government 

By the terms of the charter Lord Baltimore and his 
descendants had authority over the new colony almost 
equal to that of the English king, but the people had the 
right to assist in making the laws. 

3. Religious Disputes 

Several years after Maryland was first established, 
large numbers of Puritans came into the colony. Later 
the Episcopalians became strong also, and most of the 
political history of the colony is closely related to re- 
ligious contentions among the Catholics, Puritans and 
Episcopalians. 



46 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

III North and South Carolina 

1. Orii^in 

In Kido King Charles II {granted the territory between 
Virginia and Florida to eight of his friends among 
whom were Sir WilHam Berkeley, the Duke of Albe- 
marle, the Earl of Clarendon, and the Earl of Shaftes- 
bury. Before this charter was issued a few English 
colonists had made a settlement on Albemarle Sound 
and these were soon joined by others. The first settle- 
ment in South Carolina was made on the southern side 
of Charleston Harbor in 1670, and ten years later Char- 
leston was founded. Other settlements were soon made 
in both North and South Carolina, the most important 
being around Charleston and on the Cape Fear River. 
But during the first thirty-five years the growth in pop- 
ulation was not rapid. At first South Carolina was 
most populous, the settlements around Charleston in 
1082 having a population of about three thousand. At 
the close of the seventeenth century the population be- 
gan to increase more rapidly. In 1750 there were 
about ninety thousand people living in North Carolina, 
and about eighty thousand in South Carolina. 

2. Character of Colonists 

The colonists of North and South Carolina came 
from various nations and were members of different 
churches. Many came because of religious persecu- 
tions at home. This mixed population represented 
strength and determination. 

3. Government 

The proprietors to whom the king had granted the 
two colonies belonged to the Church of England, and 
their efforts to keep all who did not belong to their 
church from taking any part in the government caused 
constant trouble between the governors, whom they ap- 
pointed, and the people. The people insisted on help- 



Origin, Grozith and Political History 47 

ing make the laws and soon secured the right to elect 
legislative bodies. Because of frequent and serious dis- 
orders in the government the charter was annulled in 
1729, and North and v^outh Carolina each became a 
royal province. 

IV Georgia 

1. Origin: Character of Settlers 

In 1732 King George II granted to James Oglethorpe 
and twenty other men the territory between South 
Carolina and Florida for the purpose of making homes 
for men who were imprisoned for debt in England. 
Rich men gave money and Parliament voted a sum to 
aid these debtors to make another start in the new 
colony which was called Georgia. Oglethorpe was ap- 
pointed governor, and in 1733 he, with thirty-five fami- 
lies, made the first settlement in the last English colony 
to be established in America, by founding the city of 
Savannah. Augusta was founded the next year and 
five years later another settlement was made at the 
mouth of the Altamaha. The colony at first was not 
prosperous. In 1752 there were less than five thousand 
people living in Georgia, but from this time on the pop- 
ulation increased more rapidly and had reached about 
fifty thousand in 1766, 

2. Government 

Oglethorpe was appointed governor before leaving 
England and continued to hold that office until 1743. 
The charter placed the government entirely in the hands 
of the proprietors, and the colonists assisted very little 
in making the laws. After Oglethorpe returned to 
England the afifairs of the colony got into very bad 
shape, and in 1752 the colony was made a royal province. 



48 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

NEW ENGLAND 

1 Origin and Growth in Population 

1. Plymoutli and Massaclnisctis Bay Colonies 

(a) Origin of Puritans and Separatists 

Because the Pope would not grant him permission 
to divorce his wife and marry Anne Boleyn, one of 
her maids, King Henry Mil of England induced 
Parliament to pass a statute which declared him and 
not the Pope the head of the Catholic Church in Eng- 
land. Henry did not wish to make many changes 
in the Church of England, as the Catholic church 
in England was then called, but many of the English 
people did, and after the reform was begun by the 
king, it could not easily be checked. Some withdrew 
from the church altogether and were therefore called 
Separatists. Soiue wished to remain in the church 
and reform or purify it, and these, therefore, were 
called Puritans. 

(b) Persecution of Separatists and Puritans 

The Separatists were not permitted to withdraw 
peacefully from the Episcopal or Established church, 
and to establish churches of their own. In many 
cases their property was taken from them, they were 
sent to jail and the leaders were put to death. In 
1607 some of them escaped from England and settled 
in Holland. At first the Puritans joined in these 
persecutions, but soon they themselves began to be 
persecuted, and some of them joined the Separatists 
in Holland. 

(c) The Founding of Plymouth Colony 

The Separatists and Puritans who had fled to Hol- 
land did not wish to remain there, because they were 
afraid that their children would acquire the speech, 
habits, and manners of the Dutch. They wished to 
find a place where they could live and worship in 



Origin, Grozcth and Political History 49 

peace and still remain British subjects in British ter- 
ritory. They had heard of the success of the James- 
town colony and decided to establish a home for them- 
selves and their children in the New World. In 1620 
about one hundred of these Separatists, called Pil- 
grims, because of their wanderings, sailed for Amer- 
ica in the Mayflower. On December 21st they 
landed on the coast of the present state of Massa- 
chusetts and founded the colony of Plymouth. The 
first winter was a severe one and more than half of 
the colonists died of cold, hunger, and disease. How- 
ever, in the face of all discouragements these men 
and women clung to their new home persistently. In 
1630 the colony contained only three hundred sixty 
persons, in 1640 about three thousand and in 1670 
it had reached eight thousand. 

(d) The Founding of Massachusetts Bay Colony 

Charles I, who became king in 1625, was strongly 
opposed to both the religious and political ideas of the 
Puritans. The persecutions of the Puritans became 
worse and worse, and so they also decided to settle in 
the New World. In 1628 some of the leading Puri- 
tans purchased from the Plymouth or New England 
Company a large tract of land in Massachusetts lying 
between the Charles and the Merrimac Rivers and ex- 
tending from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Soon 
afterwards a small party of Puritans, led by John 
Endicott, settled at a place called Naumkeag and 
changed the name to Salem. In 1620 the King 
granted to the men who had purchased this tract of 
land a charter which created a corporation called the 
Governor and Company of Massachusetts Bay. Dur- 
ing the same year about four hundred emigrants 
crossed to this territory and settled at Salem, thus 
making it larger than Plymouth, which had been 
founded nine years before. During 1630 more than 
one thousand Puritans came to New England and 

4 



THE THIRTEEN COLOXIES 

settled the towns of Charleston, Boston, Roxbury. 
Dorchester, Watertown. and New Town (later called 
Cambridj^e). By 1635 the number of colonists in the 
different settlements in Massachusetts amounted to 
about five thousand. 

2. Connecticut and Ncii' Ilairn 

In IGoG the towns of Windsor, Hartford and Weth- 
ersficld were founded by settlers from the Massachusetts 
Bay Colony. These three towns remained a part of 
Massachusetts until Hi;59, when they agreed to imite and 
were then known as the colony of Connecticut. In 1038 
a wealthy congregation of Puritans from England 
founded New Haven, and around this town grew up 
other towns. These towns united and became the col- 
ony of New Haven. These two colonies kept up a sep- 
arate existence until 1002, when Connecticut attained a 
royal charter which annexed to her the New Haven 
colony. The united colony prospered and its advance 
in wealth and population was rapid. By the time of the 
Revolution. Connecticut contained about two hundred 
thousand inhabitants. 

3. RJwdc Island 

The settlement of Rhode Island was due largely to re- 
ligious and political troubles in Massachusetts. Roger 
Williams, a Puritan minister, was banished from Massa- 
chusetts on account of the political and religious doc- 
trines he taught. With his followers he bought land 
from the Indians and made a settlement called Provi- 
dence. Other towns were founded by Anne Plutchinson 
and Samuel Gorton, and later all these united under the 
title Rhode Island. 

4. Neiv IlanipsJiirc and Maine 

The earliest settlements in the territory later known as 
New Hampshire were two trading posts at Dover and 
Portsmouth, established in 1030 bv John Mason and 



Origin, Grozcth and Political History 51 

Ferdinand Gorges. In the territory known as Maine 
but few settlements were made. It was never known 
as one of the colonies except as a part of Massachusetts. 

II Government in Early New England 

1. The Virginian and the Puritan: Union of Church and 
State 
The early settlers of Virginia and a large portion of 
those of the other southern colonies, did not come to the 
New World in order to escape from religious persecu- 
tion. They belonged to the Episcopal or Established 
Church of England and therefore were under the pro- 
tection of the government in religious matters. They 
cam.e to the New World for the sake of adventure and 
more especially because they could make a better living 
for themselves and their children. They were thorough 
believers in the civil and political liberty which English- 
men enjoyed, and they and their descendants were as 
stout in the defense of those rights in the struggle with 
the English kings which ended in the Revolution, as 
were the people of New England. The colonists of 
New England, unlike those of Virginia, came to Amer-r 
ica mainly because of religious persecution in England. 
Alany of them were men of wealth and were graduates 
of the English Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. 
They planned to and did establish a state based on Puri- 
tan ideas of religion and government. This does not 
mean that the Plymouth and Massachusetts Bay colo- 
nies were places where religious liberty existed. The 
Puritans persecuted those who preached any doctrine 
other than Puritanism just as severely as they them- 
selves had been persecuted in England by Episcopalians. 
From the very first in Massachusetts the Church and 
State were very closely united. The laws provided that 
no one should vote or hold an office of any kind unless 
he were a member of a Puritan church or congregation. 
This form of government in which the Church and the 
State are thus connected is known as a Theocracy. 



52 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. Local Government: The Tozvn Meeting 

The large immigration into Massachusetts Bay Col- 
ony called for the immediate organization of a definite 
form of government. As a rule the Puritans came over 
as congregations, and each congregation estahlished a 
small town. The freemen of each town, which included 
the adjacent country, met at the meeting house or town 
hall and elected town officers and transacted all the town 
business. 

3. GoTcnuncnt Under tJic CJiartcrs 

The charter granted to the Massachusetts Bay Com- 
pany provided for the election of a governor and a 
deputy governor, and of a committee of eighteen mem- 
bers called assistants. These officers when assembled 
constituted what was known as the General Court. A 
little later representatives were elected from each town. 
These met in a separate legislative body and soon se- 
cured more power in the government than the governor 
and assistants. Government in the other New England 
colonies was much the same. In Rhode Island and 
Connecticut the Church and State were entirely sepa- 
rate. Connecticut dififered from the other colonies in 
that she had a written constitution made and adopted by 
the people. 

4. Nciv England Confederacy 

(a) Origin 

There were certain conditions in early New Eng- 
land which might at any time require the colonies to 
act together. In order to be ready in case of attacks 
by the Dutch, French or Indians on the frontier, all 
the New England colonics except Rliode Island 
formed a confederacy. Rhode Island was excluded 
because of her unsettled religious and ]~)olitical con- 
ditions. 

(b) Nature 

The confederation was not a real union, but a mere 
agreement to act together on certain general qucs- 



Origin, Grox^th and Political History 53 

tions. The government was in charge of eight com- 
missioners, two elected from each colony. The com- 
missioners had entire control of questions arising be- 
tween the colonies and the Indians, or a foreign 
power. 

(c) Defects 

The commissioners had no power to enforce their 
acts ; the government was simply advisory. This lack 
of power made the Confederacy a weak form of union. 
Another weakness was that each of the colonies had 
the same power in the government, while they dif- 
fered widely in population and wealth, IMassachusetts 
having more inhabitants and paying more taxes than 
all the others combined. This caused ill feeling and 
weakened the Confederacy. 

(d) Value 

The Confederacy was especially valuable during the 
war with the Indians, 1675-78. It was also of value 
to all the English colonies in America, as it served to 
prepare men's minds for unity of action a hundred 
years later when union became absolutely necessary in 
order that the colonists might maintain their rights. 

Ill RKi.ATiOiNS oi' TiiK English with thk Indians 

1. The Indians and the Pilgrims 

Up to about lO:}"), the colonists of New England were 
not troubled by the Indians. The Pilgrims found few 
Indians in the region in which they settled. With these 
they made a treaty of peace which was faithfully kept 
both by the Indians and the English for more than fifty 
years. The attitude of the Indians further inland was 
also friendly at first. 

2. Pcquod IJ'ar 

The steady advance of the English into the Indian ter- 
ritory roused the dislike and jealousy of the Indians. 
This feeling soon led to warfare which broke out be- 



54 TIIF. THTRTREN COLONIES 

tween the Peqnods and the settlers. This war resulted 
ill the destruction of the entire tribe, the most powerful 
tribe in New England, and the effect upon the other 
Indians was such that they did not attack the English 
for nearly forty years. 

3. llic Indians and the Puritans 

The dealings of the Puritans with the Indians were, 
on the whole, just and honorable. The Puritans con- 
verted many of the Indians to Christianity, and tried to 
educate and to civilize them but without much success. 
The Indian and the Puritan did not understand each 
other. The Indian had no conception of what private 
ownership of land meant, and when he saw finally that 
selling the land to the English meant giving it up for- 
ever and being put out of the territory, he became un- 
friendly. The Indians also resented having their chiefs 
called to account for the misdeeds of the members of 
the tribes. 

4, King Pltili/^'s JJ'ar 

When Massasoit, who had made the early treaty of 
peace with the English, died, and his son Philip became 
chief of the Wampanoags, the growing dislike and dis- 
trust of the Indians for the English broke out in a war. 
This war began in 1()75 and lasted three years with 
dreadful effect upon both the English and the Indians. 
It was much more serious than the Pequod war. Over 
four thousand well armed Indian warriors w^ere iniited 
against the English. A great deal of life and property 
was lost, and a heavy debt was incurred by the English. 
The three tribes of Indians engaged were almost com- 
pletely destroyed. The end of this war marks the end 
of Indian ])ower in New England. It was a contest 
between the people of a weak race who owned the soil. 
and the invaders who belonged to a higher and stronger 
civilization. As is usually the case, the more vigorous 
and higher civilization triumphed. 



Origin, Groivtli and Pulilical History 55 

IV Under 'riiE: RoYAi, GovKknors 

1. AnimUing of the Charter of MassacJinsetts Bay Colony 

(a) First Attempts 

King Charles I hated the Puritans and seized upon 
complaints made by people who had been banished 
from Massachusetts and others who were jealous of 
her power, as an excuse to attack her government. 
He demanded the charter in 1(335 but Massachusetts 
refused to give it up and trouble at home kept him 
from sending an army to compel obedience. 

(b) The Confederacy and the Commonwealth 

In 1G42 war broke out in England between Charles 
I and Parliament. In 1643 the New England Con- 
federacy was formed, and from that time until the 
defeat of the King's army in 1649, New England w^as 
practically independent of outside power. During 
the time when Cromwell and Parliament ruled Eng- 
land without a king, New England continued to con- 
duct her affairs about as she pleased, with little inter- 
ference from the home government. 

(c) Quarrels Between Charles II and Massachusetts 
When Charles II came to the throne in 1663 he 

made certain courteous and reasonable demands of 
Massachusetts Bay Colony regarding the acknowd- 
edging of his authority, religious toleration for Epis- 
copalians, and extending the right to vote to the 
members of other churches. The Colony refused to 
comply with these demands, but war in Europe pre- 
vented Charles from taking action against it until 
1675. 

(d) The Charter Amiullcd 

The Massachusetts Bay Colony had annexed New 
Hampshire and Maine. The heirs of Mason and 
Gorges, to whom this territory had originally been 
granted, claimed that the territory belonged to thenl. 
Kine Charles sent over a commissioner to investiq:ate 



56 THE 'IIIlR'l'EEN COLONIES 

affairs in the colony, regarding its coinpliancc with 
his demands, the state of feehng among the people, 
the colony's rights to New Hampshire and Maine, 
and the enforcing of English laws. The commis- 
sioner's report was very im favorable to the colony, 
and in 1(584 the charter was annulled. 

3. Tlic Despotic Rule of Andros 

In 1085 Sir Edmund Andros was appointed governor 
of all New England, and of New York and New Jersey. 
One main object of the English government for this 
action was the union of all the northern colonies, in 
order to be better prepared for any attack of the French 
from Canada. The plan or method of bringing about 
this union could not have been much worse. Andros 
was directed to seize the charters of Connecticut and 
Rhode Island, but this he was unable to do. He abol- 
ished the legislature of Massachusetts and levied taxes 
and arrested men without due process of law. While 
his rule was very despotic and arbitrary, it should be 
remembered that the leaders of the Puritan party did 
all they could to anger him, even going so far as to 
oppose strongly the establishment of an Episcopal 
church at Boston. 

3. Securing of Royal Charters by Rhode Island and 
Couneclicnt 

When Connecticut and Rhode Island heard that 
Charles had become king, they did not do as Massa- 
chusetts had done. Each sent a pleasing and flattering 
address to him, and as a result each secured a charter 
which provided for a very liberal form of government. 
Under these charters the people of each colony elected 
their governors and members of the legislature. They 
could pass any law that did not conflict with the laws 
of England. The Connecticut charter remained in eflFect 
until 1818, forty-two years after the colonies became 
the United States, and the charter granted to Rhode 



Origin, Grozvth and Political History 57 

Island remained in effect nntil 1843. Much against the 
will of the people of New Haven, that colony was an- 
nexed to Connecticut, and the history of New Haven 
as a separate c-olony thus came to an end in 1(5(33. New 
Haven had heen a strong Puritan colony, and as Charles 
disliked the Puritans, he was glad to annex it to Con- 
necticut. Rhode Island and Connecticut were both re- 
quired to prevent no one from voting on account of his 
religious belief. But they did not object to this. 

4. Oz'crthrozv of King and Andros 

In 1688 the English rose in rebellion. King James 
fled to France, and by invitation of the English people, 
William of Orange came over from Holland and became 
king of England. When the people of Massachusetts 
heard of the rebellion in England, they arrested Gov- 
ernor Andros and placed him in prison. Rhode Island 
and Connecticut re-established governments under their 
old charters, and no further attempts were made by an 
English king to annul these liberal charters which the 
people of these two colonies loved so well. Massachu- 
setts hoped that the new king would grant her a charter 
that would also provide for a liberal form of govern- 
ment, but she was disappointed. She was granted a new 
charter, however, which gave her the right to elect a 
legislature or law-making body, and which provided 
that no taxes could be levied except by the legislature. 
The people of Massachusetts, therefore, could not be 
taxed except by themselves— a right dear to all Eng- 
lishmen, and one which the people of all the colonies 
were determined to have. The charter also provided 
that no man should be denied the right to vote or to 
take part in the government because of his religious 
ideas. Under the old charter the governor was elected 
liy the people ; but under the new^ charter he was ap- 
pointed by the king. All laws passed by the legislature 
had to be sent to the king for his approval before they 
became effective. This was not so liberal a government 



58 TIIF. THIRTEEN COLONIES 

as that enjoyed by the people of Rhode Island and Con- 
necticut, hut the people of Massachusetts had to live 
under it until the Revolution, when all the colonies 
becaiue independent of England. As the new charter 
annexed the colony of Plymouth and the territory of 
Maine to the Massachusetts 15ay colony, the people of 
these two places also lived under the government of this 
charter. 

5. New England from i68p to 1/66 

From 1689 to 1766 Massachusetts and New Hamp- 
shire were governed by royal governors who were ap- 
pointed by the English kings, and by a legislature elected 
by the people. During the greater part of this time the 
governors and the people were quarreling about taxes 
and laws. All these quarrels caused the people to care 
less and less for the mother country and served to pre- 
pare them for complete separation from England. Dur- 
ing this time Connecticut and Rhode Island continued 
to enjoy the liberal government provided by their char- 
ters, and as a rule had very little trouble with the home 
government. 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
I Nkw York 

1. Discoi'cry and Sctllciiiciit 

In KiOl), Henr\' Hudson, an English sailor emplo\ed 
by a Dutch commercial company, discovered the river 
which now bears his name, and explored the country 
bordering it. The Dutch called the territory New 
Netherlands and immediately began to send settlers over 
to secure the valuable fur trade of the region. The first 
settlement was made on Manhattan Island in Kill and 
other towns soon sprang up along the Hudson, on Long 
Island, and on Manhattan Island. In 1655 the territory 
now known as New Jersey and Delaware was taken by 
the Dutch and made part of their colony. 



Origin, Groi^iJi and Political History 59 

2. Character of the Colonists 

While the territory was claimed and held by the 
Dutch, the settlers came from all parts of Europe. These 
first settlers came simply for trading-, not for the purpose 
of making homes. In order to encourage permanent 
settlers, valuable grants of land along the Hudson were 
given to men bringing to New Netherlands fifty per- 
manent settlers. These grants were called patroonships, 
and the men receiving them, patroons. This brought 
in many settlers, but more men of the better class came 
in later when cheap ownership of small holdings of 
land was promised. 

3. Government Under the Dutch 

While this colony was under the Dutch control the 
people had very little voice in the government. The 
governor was appointed by the company, and although 
he had a council to advise him, he really had all the 
power in his own hands. Peter Stuyvesant stands out 
as the ablest of all the Dutch governors. His rule was 
arbitrary and he paid little attention to the rights of 
the people, but the wealth and population of the colony 
more than doubled under his administration. 

4. The Colony Under Eni^lish Control 

New Netherlands by its position divided the English 
colonies into two parts, and for that reason, as well as 
on account of its commercial value, the English desired 
its possession. So in KKU the English king, Charles 
H, sent over a small fleet and took possession of the 
entire colony. In 1()7;> the Dutch again obtained con- 
trol of this territory, but only for one year. The Eng- 
lish king granted this province to James, Duke of York 
and Albany, and the name of the colony was changed to 
New York. The Duke granted the southern part of the 
territory to two Englishmen as a separate province 
under the name of New Jersey. 



60 TIIF. 'IlIIRTEEN COLONIES 

5, Under the Royal Corcrnors 

When the province was tj^iven to the Duke of York, 
a charter was given the people, which was based on the 
New Ungland charters, but did not give die people so 
many rights in the government. In 1G85 James became 
King of England and New York thus became a royal 
province. 'From this time the government was carried 
on along the same lines as the other royal colonies, that 
is. with a governor and council appointed by the king 
and an assembly elected by the people. As in New 
England, there was a great deal of trouble betw^een the 
legislature and the governor. The people never gained 
as much power in law-making as they did in New 
England or the southern colonies. 

II Nkw Jersey 

1. Origin 

The real history of this colony begins in 16Gi when 
the Duke of York granted the territory between New 
York harbor and Delaware Bay to Lord Berkeley and 
Sir George Carteret, giving it the name New Jersey. 
Settlers came in from New York, New England and 
Europe, and the province grew steadily in population 
and wealth. 

2. Political History 

When the proprietors received the grant of New Jer- 
sey they established a liberal form of government with 
a governor and council appointed by themselves, and an 
assembly elected by the freemen. Owing to some 
trouble in managing the colony, Lord Berkeley sold his 
share to the Quakers, and the province was divided into 
East and West Jersey. The Quakers organized a more 
liberal government in the western part, while East Jer- 
sey was organized on the same lines as the whole prov- 
ince had been. In 1()S2 William Penn and some asso- 
ciates became the proprietors of East Jersey. Continual 



Origin, Grox^th and Political History 61 

trouble between the province and the proprietors led the 
proprietors to give up their rights in 1702, and the two 
provinces were united and placed directly under control 
of the Crown. 

III Delaware 

The first colony of any importance in this territory was 
established by Sweden in IGoS. Thirteen years later this 
territory was taken by the Dutch, and, with New Jersey, 
made a part of New Netherlands. When the English 
conquered the Dutch, Delaware remained a part of New 
York until 1G82 when William Penn obtained a grant to it 
as a part of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware organized a 
separate legislature and became a separate province, but 
remained under the governor of Pennsylvania. 

IV Pennsylvania 
1. Origin 

In 1681 Charles II granted a tract of land extending 
from the Delaware river westward and containing forty 
thousand square miles, to William Penn, in payment of 
a debt owed by the Crown to his father. Penn's plan 
was to found a colony for the Quakers who were perse- 
cuted in England. As his colony had no sea coast, Penn 
bought the rights to Delaware and governed it as part 
of Pennsylvania. In 1702 Delaware was made a sepa- 
rate colony with a separate legislature, though it re- 
mained under the same governor as Pennsylvania. 

3. Settlement and Growth 

Penn put his plan before the people promising just 
government, religious freedom, protection of personal 
rights and cheap land. As a result, large numbers of 
Quakers from England, and settlers from all parts of 
Europe, especially Germany, came to this new territory 
at once. The growth of this colony was more rapid 
than that of any other American colony. 



(y2 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

3. Govcniuicnt 

When Charles II granted Pennsylvania to William 
Penn he placed some restrictions on his government, 
the most important being that all laws must be approved 
by the king, and that the king might tax the people of 
the colony directly. Penn established a very democratic 
form of government in the colony, the law-making 
power being given to a legislature of two houses, both 
of whose members were elected by the people. Penn 
acted as governor, but did not retain much power. Later 
he took away some of the power given the people, 

4. Province Under Deputy Governors 

When Penn left the colony in ITOI he made a new 
constitution by which the assembly elected by the people 
had the power to make all the laws, and the governor 
and council appointed by the proprietor were merely 
advisory. The colony was left in charge of a deputy 
governor and secretary, and the government was carried 
on in this way until the Revolution. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE SOUTHERN COLONIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the "Origin, Growth, and 
Political History of the Thirteen Colonies." each pupil should 
read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 55-162. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," p. ix.) 
What caused the English to renew their attempts to colonize in 
the New World? Explain the relations between the Virginia 
Company and its two branches, — the London and the Plymouth 
companies. Describe the government which the general charter pro- 
vided for these three companies. What territory was granted to 
the Virginia Company? What part of this territory was granted at 
first to each of its branch companies? (Each pupil should draw a 
map that will show plainly the territory granted to the main or 
Virginia Company, and the sub-grants of this territory to the 
London and Plymouth Companies.) What was the object of the 
London Company in sending settlers to America? Describe the 
condition of the Jamestown settlement during the first year, and 
the work of John Smith. What was the character of the early 
settlers? Why did they come to the New World? Describe the 
government of the colony under Thomas Dale, and the condition 
of the colony under his rule. 

What is representative government? Describe its origin in 
America. What is a royal province or colony? Explain carefully 
how and why Virginia became a royal province. Did this change 
affect the law-making power of the people? Describe in a general 
way the relations between the royal governors and the people. 
What were the general results of these relations? How long was 
Sir William Berkeley governor of Virginia? What caused his term 
of office as governor to be divided? For what two things was his 
long rule especially noted? Describe Bacon's Rebellion, discussing 
its cause and results. 

Discuss the origin of Maryland and its growth in population. 
Contrast Virginia and Maryland with regard to tlu' object of 
settlement. What is a proprietary colony? Describe the differ- 
ence between the proprietary colony Maryland and the royal 
province Virginia in regard to the selection of governor. Con- 
trast ]\Iaryland and Virginia in regard to the rights and powers 
the people had in the government of each colony. Explain care- 
fully how religious disputes affected the political history of Mary- 
land. Describe the relations of Virginia and Maryland. 



64 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Describe the origin of North and South Carolina and their growth 
in population. Compare the granting of this territory with the 
granting of Virginia to the London Company. What is the form 
of government that first existed in the Carolinas called? Describe 
the character of the early settlers. Why did they settle in these 
two. colonies? What rights did the people of these two colonies 
have in the government when it was first organized? Explain 
carefully how the religious beliefs of the people affected their 
political rights. Explain carefully to what extent the people con- 
trolled government in these two colonies. What caused these two 
colonies to become royal provinces? Describe briefly the growth 
of these colonics, giving the names and locations of the larger 
towns. 

Describe the origin and growth of Georgia, and give the reason 
for its settlement. What was the character of its early settlers? 
Describe the growth of this colony. Why was the colony not 
more prosperous? What powers did the people have in the gov- 
ernment? In what way was South Carolina benefited by the found- 
ing of Georgia? When and why did Georgia become a royal 
province? 

Questions for CoMrosiTioNS and Ex.\min.\tions 

Discuss the object of the settlement and the character of the 
settlers of each of the southern colonies. Compare these colonies 
with respect to growth in wealth and population. Discuss the 
origin of representative government in America. Compare the 
southern colonies with respect to the rights of the people in gov- 
ernment. Discuss the relations between the royal governors and 
the people. (Each pupil should draw a map of the southern colo- 
nies. Tills map should show the boundaries and the more im- 
portant cities, mountains, and rivers of each colony.) 

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully why King Henry VIII. had himself declared 
the head of the Catholic church in England. Did he wish to 
destroy or make many changes in the doctrines of the church? 
How did the Episcopal church come to be established? Describe 
the origin of the Puritans. Describe the origin of the Separatists. 
How did the Separatists differ from the Puritans? How were the 
Puritans and Separatists treated? Why did the Separatists go to 
Holland? Why did they wish to leave Holland and go to 
America? Why were they called Pilgrims? Did they intend to 
settle in ]\Iassachusetts? Describe the first j'car of the life of the 



Questions and Topics 65 

Plymouth colony. Explain carefully the conditions that caused 
the Puritans to wish to leave England and come to America. How 
did the Puritans obtain land in America? What settlements were 
made by the Puritans in Massachusetts? Compare the growth of 
the Plymouth colony with that of the Massachusetts Bay colony. 
Describe the origin and growth of the Connecticut colony. 
Describe the origin and growth of the New Haven colony. How 
did the Connecticut and New Haven colonies become united? 
What caused the settlement of Rhode Island? Tell what you 
can about Roger Williams and Anne Hutchinson. Describe the 
growth of Rhode Island. What was the character of the first set- 
tlements in New Hampshire and Maine? 

Compare the object of the settlers of New England with that of 
the settlers of Virginia in coming to America. Tell what you can 
about religious liberty in Massachusetts. What kind of govern- 
ment did the people of Massachusetts establish? Explain care- 
fully how the life and government of the people were affected 
by the fact that they came over in congregations, each congrega- 
tion settling together. Discuss the town meetings, explaining their 
nature, powers, and who could take part in them. Tell what you 
can about the government provided for by the charter of Massa- 
chusetts. Tell what you can about the beginning of representative 
government in New England. Compare this with the beginning 
of representative government in Virginia. Show that it was 
not necessary in all the colonies for a man to be a church member 
in order that he might vote. Describe the government of 
Plymouth colony. Give a careful description of the government of 
Connecticut and Rhode Island. In what way did the government 
of Connecticut differ from that of all the other colonies? By a 
careful discussion show that in New England the people controlled 
the law-making branch of the government. What caused the for- 
mation of the New England Confederacy? Why was Rhode 
Island not admitted to this Confederacy? Describe the nature of 
the government provided for by the Confederacy. Why was it 
not a strong union? Of what value was the Confederacy? 

Explain carefully why the Indians at first did not trouble the 
Pilgrims. Explain carefully why later they became unfriendly. Dis- 
cuss the causes and results of the Pequod War. How did the 
Puritans treat the Indians as a rule? . Why were the Indians and 
the Puritans not able to get along well together? Discuss the 
causes of King Philip's War. Compare this war with the Pequod 
War. Give a careful discussion of the results of King Philip's 
War, and explain how this war affected the future relations of 
the people of New England with the Indians. 

Explain carefully why Charles I. disliked the Puritans. For 
what causes did the Puritans banish people from Massachusetts?' 
5 



66 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Describe the quarrels between ^Massachusetts and Charles I. Dis- 
cuss the relations between New England and the English govern- 
ment during the time that Cromwell and Parliament ruled England. 
When Charles II. became king, what demand did he make on the 
Massachusetts Bay colony? Were these demands reasonable? 
Explain fully all the conditions and circumstances that caused the 
charter of this colony to be annulled. E.xplain why many people 
in Massachusetts did not object to having the charter of their 
colony annulled. In what way did Governor Andros create strong 
opposition to his rule in Massachusetts? Explain all the circum- 
stances and conditions that enabled Connecticut and Rhode Island 
to secure new charters at this time. Explain carefully the nature 
of the government for which these charters provided. Explain 
carefully how the rule of Andros affected Connecticut and Rhode 
Island. Why did the king wish to unite all New England under 
one governor? How was the rule of Governor Andros brought 
to an end? Explain carefully the nature of the government pro- 
vided for by the new charter which the new king granted to 
^lassachusetts. How did this charter affect Plymouth colony and 
Maine? Indicate briefly the condition of government in each of 
the New England colonies from 1G89 to 1776. 

Questions for Compositions and Examin.\tions 

Discuss the religious conditions in England leading to the settle- 
ments of New England. Describe the settlement of each of the 
New England colonies. Compare the New England colonies with 
the southern colonies in respect to the object of their settlement 
and character of their settlers. Discuss the Puritan ideas of 
government as shown in the government established in New Eng- 
land. Compare the New England and the southern colonies in 
respect to the power of the people in the government. Discuss the 
relation between the Indians and the settlers of New Engjand. 
Discuss the annulling of the charter of the Massachusetts Bay 
colony. Compare the relations between the people and the royal 
governors in New England with those between the people and 
the royal governors in the southern colonies. 

THE MIDDLE COLONIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

In what way did the Dutch secure New York. Compare the 
settlement of New York with that of Virginia and of Massachusetts 
as regards purpose of settlement. Why was New York at first 
called New Netherlands? Describe the character of the early 
settlers. Describe the policy adopted for inducing settlers to 



X 



Questions and Topics 67 

come to the colony. Describe the government of New York by 
the Dutch. Tell what you can of the work of Peter Stuyvesant. 
Discuss the conquest of New York by the English. Explain care- 
fully the conditions that caused New York to become a royal 
province. Compare the government of New York by the English 
with its government by the Dutch. Discuss the relations of 
the people with the royal governors. 

Describe the origin and growth of New Jersej'. Describe the 
government established in this colony by the proprietors. Why 
was the colony divided? Describe fully the conditions which 
caused this colony to be made a royal province. Describe the 
origin and growth of Delaware. Give a full and careful explana- 
tion of the conditions that caused William Penn to found a colony 
in America. Describe the settlement of Pennsylvania and its 
growth in population. Why did Penn buy the right to Delaware? 
Explain the origin of the Mason and Dixon line and its relation 
to slavery. Describe the government established by Penn. Com- 
pare the rights of the people in the government of this colony 
with their rights in the government of the other colonies. De- 
scribe the government of the province under the deputy governors. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes leading to the settlement of each of the 
middle colonies, and compare them with the causes of the settle- 
ment of New England and the southern colonies. Compare each 
of the middle colonies with the New England and southern 
colonies in respect to government, bringing out the powers of 
the people in the government of each. Compare the middle with 
the southern and New England colonies in respect to the character 
of their settlers. Compare the growth of the middle colonies with 
the growth of the New England and the southern colonies. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

THE I'RllXCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

(In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the 
second number of Hart's Source Readers in American History, 
pp. 71-150.) 

I Frkncii Explorations and Sf.tti.emknts 

D. 83; Mc. 00-0.5; Ma. 117-121; G. S9-0 1 ; ^1. 
28, 126-130 

II Contrast of Frrncti and English vSkttlf.ments 

D. 84-86 ; T. 89-90 ; M. 131 

III Relations oe the French with the Indians 

1. Value of Indian Friendship 

D. 86; Mc. 70-71; Ma. 118-119 

2. Bnmity of the Iroquois 

D. 86-89 ; Mc. 73-73 

IV Early Conflict Between French and English 

1. Conditions Makiiii:; Conflict Inevitable 

D. 89; Mc. 76; Ma. 121 

2. Conditions Leading to English Success 

D. 90 

3. King IVilliani's, Queen Anne's and King George's 

Wars, 1689-1748 
D. 90-92; Mc. 76-81; Ma. 122-124; T. 85- 
87; M. 131-134 

V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 

1. Beginnings 

D. 92-97; H. U. 138-141; Mc. 81-88; Ma. 
124-129; G. 9.5-103; T. 90-96; M. 135-139 



TIic French in North America 



69 



2. The War Under Pitt's Direction, 17r)8-17()3 

D. 97-101; H. II. 146-150; Mc. 89-90; Ma. 
129-133; G. 103-106; T. 97-100; M. 139-140 

3. Treaty of Peaee; Results of the War 

D. 101; Mc. 90-91; Ma. 133-135; G. 106- 
107; T. 100-101; M. 141-143 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

I French Explorations and Settlements 

The French explored the Mississippi Valley and the ter- 
ritory north of the Great Lakes and the English colonies. 
Cartier and Champlain were the first important explorers 
of the country along the St. Lawrence. Champlain estab- 
lished several permanent settlements, among them being 
Port Royal, Quebec and Montreal. From these early set- 
tlements made between KiOo and 1612, later explorers 
pushed on through the region of the Great Lakes and 
discovered and explored the Mississippi river and valley. 
Joliet, Marquette and La Salle were the foremost explorers 
of the Mississippi river and its tributaries, La Salle giving 
the name Louisiana to this territory. Thus in 16S3 the 
French claims in America included all the territory from 
the Appalachian to the Rocky Mountains, the region of 
the Great Lakes, and the country north of the English 
colonies, including Nova Scotia and Newfoundland. 

II Contrast oe French and English Settlements 

The difference between the French and the English 
colonies was due largely to the difference in the purpose 
and manner of settlement. The English came to make 
homes, while the French came for the money to be gained 
from the fisheries and the fur trade ; to convert the 
Indians ; and to gain more territory for France. Conse- 
quently the English built up strong and prosperous farm- 
ing communities along the coast, while the French spread 
their claims over as much territory as possible, but made 
few permanent settlements, most of those made being mere 
military trading posts. Thus while the territory occupied 
by the English colonics was small as compared with that 
claimed by France, the population of the English colonies 



The French in North America 71 

by 1750 had reached ahiiost two niilHons, while the total 
French population in North America was less than one 
liundred thousand. 

III Relations oi'' the French with the Indians 
1. Value of Indian Friendship 

As the French were very anxious to secure the fur 
trade, and as the Indians controlled most of this, it was 
necessary for the French to be on friendly terms with 
them. The French were very successful in winning this 
friendship, and this was the real source of their power. 
Except in the case of the Irocjuois the French were 
much more successful in dealing with the Indians than 
were the English. 

i. Enmity of the Iroquois 

By aiding the Algonquins in a battle against another 
tribe, the French early gained the bitter hatred of the 
Iroquois or Five Nations, the most powerful Indian 
confederacy in North America. As the Iroquois occu- 
pied the territory between the St. Lawrence country and 
the English colonies, the French were compelled to move 
westward in their advance, and were kept from occu- 
pying New York, and from coming in contact with the 
English. This gave the English time to develop and 
gather strength for the coming contest. 

IV Early Contest Between French and English 

1. Conditions Making Conflict Inevitable 

When the English colonists had settled up most of 
the territory east of the Appalachian Mountains it was 
but natural that they should pass over these mountains 
into the Ohio Valley in search of new farming lands. 
When they did this it meant that the two nations must 
fight. If the English occupied this valley the French 



72 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

in Canada wonkl l)e separated from those in the sonth- 
ern part of the Alississippi valley, and thus the French 
plans for a great Empire in America would be over- 
thrown. 

2. Conditions Leading to English Success 

The permanent character of the English colonies, and 
the greater size of the English population made it 
impossible for the French to check the steady advance 
of the English. 

3. King WiUianis, Queen Anne's and King George's 

Wars, i68p-i/48 

These three wars were caused by trouble between 
France and England in Europe. It was but natural that 
the conflict should extend to the French and English 
colonies in America. But the results of these wars in 
America were not important. In each war the French 
and their Indian allies destroyed some English settle- 
ments on the frontier, and massacred the settlers. All 
that the English in America gained was Nova Scotia 
and some military training. During King George's War 
they captured Louisburg, an important military post, but 
by the treaty at the close of the war it was returned to 
France. The French secured no new territory. 

V The French and Indian War, 1754-1763 

The fourth and last war between the French and Eng- 
lish in the New World began, not in Europe, as had the 
other three, but in America. The first battle of this war 
was fought in 1751. This was two years before war was 
formally declared between France and England, and dur- 
ing this time several battles had been fought. In 1750 
the war between the French and English in America 
became a part of one of the greatest wars of modern times. 
F.ngland and Frederick the Great of Prussia united against 
France, Spain, Austria, and Russia. In Europe this war 



TIic French in North America 73 

was known as the Seven Years' War, and lasted from 
1756 to 1763. In America it was known as the French 
and Indian War and lasted from 1754 to 1763. In a most 
heroic struggle, Frederick the Great, aided by England, 
was a match for his combined enemies in Europe and by 
the treaty signed in 1763 by all the nations engaged in the 
war, Prussia did not lose a foot of territory. The war 
was most disastrous to France. The treaty which closed 
it marked the temporary end of French Colonial Empire, 
but France has since secured some valuable colonial pos- 
sessions. She lost all her possessions in North America, 
and nearly all those in India. England secured the greater 
part of the territory that France lost, and gained more by 
the war than any other nation. 

1. Beginnings 

The passing of English settlers over into the Ohio 
valley caused the French to construct a series of forts 
from. Lake Erie to the site of the present city of Pitts- 
burg. A small force under command of Washington 
was sent against Fort Duquesne, the last of these forts 
built, but was defeated by a much larger force of the 
French and their Indian allies, and was forced to sur- 
render. This w^as Washington's first and only surrender. 

After Washington's defeat England sent over a thou- 
sand soldiers under General Braddock to aid the colo- 
nies. This army was increased by the colonies, and 
with a force of about twenty-two hundred, Braddock 
marched from Virginia against Fort Duquesne. He 
was surprised on the march by a force of French and 
Indians from the fort, and defeated with great loss. 
This defeat was largely due to Braddock's ignorance of 
frontier methods of fighting. 

Expeditions sent by the colonies against Niagara, 
Crown Point and Ticonderoga were unsuccessful, and 
during the next two years the important forts of Oswego 
and William Henry were captured by the French. 



74 Till' THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. The War Under Pitt's Direction, 1758-176^ 

William Pitt became Prime Minister of England in 
1757, with full control of military operations. He was 
the greatest war minister England has ever had. He at 
once reorganized the English army, removing the in- 
competent officers and replacing them with men of 
ability. He raised a force of fifty thousand soldiers for 
the war in America, half of which was furnished by 
England and half l)y the colonies, and placed it under 
competent generals. 

From the time Pitt came into power the English were 
almost uniformly successful. Three of the most impor- 
tant French forts, Duquesne, Frontenac, and Louisburg. 
were captured by the English in 1758. The capture of 
Quebec and of Montreal in 1750 and 1760. completed 
the overthrow of the French in America. 

3. Treaty of Peace; Results of the War 

Although the last battle of the French and Indian 
War was in 17G0, the treaty of peace was not signed 
until the end of the Seven Years' War in 17G3. Among 
other things, this treaty gave England all the territory 
east of the Mississippi except the island on which New 
Orleans stands. To Spain was given this island and 
all the territory west of the great river. France retained 
nothing in North America except two small islands in 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The results of the war made 
it plain that the English language and English institu- 
tions should be supreme in North America. The Eng- 
lish colonies could now develop in peace so far as any 
foreign nation was concerned. The war brought about 
conditions which helped to bring on the Revolution, and 
the training which the colonists received in this contest 
with the French ])rcpared them for the conflict with 
the Mother country. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE FRENCH IN NORTH AMERICA 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the French in North 
America, each pupil should read the second number of Hart's 
"Source Readers in American History," pp. 71-150. See "Ex- 
planatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare the Spanish and 
English colonies in the New World with regard to purpose of 
settlement. Describe the Spanish settlements made in the terri- 
tory which now comprises part of the United States. Why did 
Spain not make more settlements in this territory? How was 
this related to the French and English colonies in North America? 
Give a careful description of the explorations and settlements made 
by Cartier and Champlain. Why is Champlain called the "Father 
of New France"? What part of the continent was explored by 
Joliet and Marquette? Discuss La Salle's explorations. (Each 
pupil should draw a map showing the routes of these explorers and 
the territory claimed by France by virtue of these explorations.) 
Describe the manner in which the explorers took possession of 
the country for France. Explain carefully how the French and 
English colonies differed as to purpose of settlement. Explain 
carefully how this affected the character of the settlements of the 
two nations. Compare the English and French colonies in respect 
to location, extent, and size of population. What caused the great 
difference in population? 

Why did the French wish to be friendly with the Indians? How 
did they gain the friendship of the Indians? Explain carefully 
why the English were less dependent on the Indians than were 
the French. How did the French make enemies of the Iroquois? 
Explain carefully how this affected the growth of the French 
colonies. How did the friendship of the Iroquois for the English 
affect the growth of the English colonies? How did the French 
occupy the territory which they claimed? Explain carefully why 
the English and the French colonists were sure to come into 
conflict in North America. Why was it natural that the English 
should pass over the Alleghanies into the Ohio Valley? Why 
did the French wish to prevent this? Explain carefully why the 
French were unable to check the westward advance of the Eng- 
lish. Tell what you can about King William's War. About Queen 
Anne's War. About King George's War. 

Tell what you can of the nature and results of the Seven Years' 
War in Europe. How was the French and Indian War in America 



76 Till'. TIIIIMEEN COLONIES 

connected with the Seven Years' War in Europe? Why did the 
French build a series of forts from Lake Erie to tlie site of tlic 
present city of Pittsburg? Why did the English object to this? 
Tell all you can about Washington's expedition against Fort 
Duquesne. What was the effect of Washington's defeat on the 
Indians in the Ohio Valley? What was its effect on the English? 
Explain carefully why the English colonists were so slow in pre- 
paring for war. Give a careful discussion of Braddock's march 
and defeat. (Each pupil should draw a map that will show the 
position of all the French forts in the West, and the place where 
Braddock was defeated.) Describe the result of the English 
expeditions against Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

What was the effect of all these defeats on the English? De- 
scribe the success of jNIontcalm in 175G and 1757. (Each pupil 
should draw a map that will illustrate all the battles fought in 
Canada and on the northern frontier of the English colonies.) 
Tell what you can about William Pitt and his war policy. De- 
scribe the taking of Louisburg. How did the capture of Louisburg 
aid the English? Describe fully the capture of Quebec. Com- 
pare the French general Montcalm with the English general Wolfe 
in character, ability and courage. What was the effect of the war 
on the history of America? What was the direct effect on the 
English colonists? (Each pupil should draw a map that will 
show all the changes in territory that were caused in America by 
this war.) 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Compare the French and English settlements in regard to 
location, extent, purpose of settlement, character, and population. 
Discuss the relations of the French with the Indians. Compare 
the attitude of the French toward the Indians wtih that of the 
English. Discuss the enmity of the Iroquois to the French and 
its effect on colonial history. Describe the conditions which made 
war between the French and English inevitable. Discuss the con- 
ditions leading to English success in this struggle. Discuss in a 
general way King William's, Queen Anne's, and King George's 
wirs. Explain the relation between the Seven Years' War in 
Europe and the French and Indian War in America. Discuss 
the scope of the French and Indian War. Describe the work of 
Washington in this war. Discuss the work of Pitt. Discuss the 
results of the war, including territorial changes and political 
effects. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIPB IN THE COLONIES 
D. 107-111 

A INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 
D. Ill 

I CoMMF,RCIAL InDUSTRIKS 

1. The Southern Colonies 

(a) Products 

D. 111-114; H. I. 63-64, 156-159; Mc. 
104; Ma. 31, 114-115; G. 116; T. 40- 
44; M. 58-59, 116-117, 124. 

(b) Plantations 

D. 114; Ma. 115-116 

1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manu- 

factures 
D. 114-116; Mc. 104 

2. Relation to Growth of Slavery 
D. 116; Mc. 105; M. 61 

2. New England 

(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

D. 116; Mc. 101-102; Ma. 113; G. 110; 
M. 86 

2. Manufactures 

D. 117; Mc. 98-99; Ma. 113-114; T. 80- 
81 ; M. 97 

3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce 

D. 118; H. I. 139-140; H. II. 50-51 
59-60; A[c. 101-102; Ma. 114; M. 86 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

(b) Relation of Physical Conditions to Slavery 
D. 110 

3. The Middle Colonics 

(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

D. 119; H. I. 147, 159-lfil ; Mc. 
103; Ma. lU; G. 118 

2. Manufactures 

D. 130; Mc. 103; Ma. 113, 114; 
M. 70 

3. Commerce 

D. 121; H. II. 37-39; Mc. 103; 
Ma. 114 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

D. 122-123 

II Professional Life 

1. The Ministry 

D. 123-126; T. 32-33; M. 149 

2. Medicine 

D. 12G 

3. Laiv 

D. 127 



B SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

(In connection with this subject each pupil should read the 
first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 1(!.")-199, and the 
second number, pp. l-()9.) • 

D. 128-130; n. I. 07-70, IGO; Mc. 93-91, 100; T. 83-84; 
M. 147-148 



Instihitional Life in the Colonics *t^ 

I The Southern Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 

D. 130-131 

(a) The Negro Slave 

D. 133-135 : H. I. 157-159 ; H. II. 34-35 ; 
Mc. 105 ; Ma. 98-99 ; M. 61 

(b) Indented Servants 

D. 135-136; H. I. 175; Mc. 97-98, 105; 
Ma. 98 ; T. 42 ; M. 61-62 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

D. 137-140 ; H. I. 149-152 ; Ma. 98-99 ; M. 
146-147 

2. Dress and Amusements 

D. 140-143 ; H. I. 152, 224-229 ; H. II. 19-26 ; 
Ma. 99-107; G. 116-118; T. 81; M. 147-148 

II New England 

1. Classes of Society 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

D. 143-144; Ma. 98-99 

2. Social Distinctions 

D. 144 ; Ma. 99 

3. Dress and Amusements 

D. 145-147; H. I. 152-155, 180-182, 192-194; 
H. 11. 26-27, 39-42, 211-212; Ma. 99-107; 
G. 144-145 ; T. 81 

III The Middle Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 
D. 147 



80 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

(a) Slaves 

(b) Indented Servants 

D. 147-148 ; H. I. 174, 184, 188-199 ; H. 
11. 52-55 

(c) The cuddle Class 

(d) The Upper Class 

D. 147-149; Mc. 38; Ma. 99-107; G. 119- 
181; T. 105; M. 70-71 

2. Dress and Amnscincufs 

D. 149-151 ; H. II. 17-19, 184, 187 

C GOVERNMENT 

I Local Government 

The County, Toivnship and Parish 
D. 151-161 

II Colonial and State Government 

D. 161 

1. State Government 

(a) Lep^islative Department 

D. 162 

(b) Executive Department 

D. 163 

(c) Judicial Department 

D. 163-164 

2. Colonial Government — Departments 

D 164 

(a) Legislative Department 

D. 165-167 ; H. 11. 61 ; Mc. 106, 33, 35, 46, 
57; T. 104, 22, 31-32, 43; M. 60, 85-86, 
105 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 81 

(b) Executive Department 

D. 167-169; Mc. 106-107; H. II. 61; T. 
31 ; M. 64-66, 76, 95, 105, 120 

(c) Judicial Department 

D. 169 

3. Colonial Government — Classes 
D. 167-169 

(a) Charter Government 

(b) Proprietary Government 

(c) Royal Government 

III National Government 

D. 169-170 

IV Relation oe Colonial Government to Present 

State Government 
D. 170-171 

D RELIGION: GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 

I Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

D. 171 

II Religious Persecution in Europe 

D. 172; Mc. 36, 41, 47, 49; M. 76-77 

III Religious Persecution in the Colonies 

D. 172-174; Mc. 36, 48; Ma. 111-113; T. 75-78; 
M. 62, 83, 86-88, 91-93, 104-107 

IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Relig- 

ious Persecution 
D. 174 . 



82 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

V Religious Liberty in the United States : Causes 

OF Its Growth 
D. 175-176 

E EDUCATION 

(In connection with this subject each pupil should read the 
first number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 201-333.) 

I Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of 

THE Present Time 
D. 17G 

II Condition of Schools in England 

D. 177 

III The Southern Colonies 

D. 178-180; H. I. 216-217, 224-226; Ma. 40-41. 
108, 109; G. 116; T. 82; M. 62 

IV New England 

D. 180-184; H. 1. 109-111, 206-210, 214-216, 232- 
233 ; Ma. 63-64, 107, 108, 109 ; G. 113 ; T. 81-83 ; 
M. 88-89, 149 

V The Middle Colonies 

D. 184-187; H. I. 218-224; Ma. 108, 109; G. 119; 
M. 149-150 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

The; Five Institutions 

INTRODUCTORY 

Five institutions or organizations exist among the people of 
every nation, state, city, and community. They are business, or 
industrial life; society, or social life; the state, or government; 
the church, or religion ; and the school, or education. These 
live institutions, in one form or another, may always be found, 
even among savages. All that any community, or its individ- 
uals, can think or do, must be thought or done along one or 
more of these lines. They include the entire life and work of 
every person and community. 

Relation oe the Individual to ThESE Five Institutions 

Among civilized people these institutions are plainly marked, 
and every person bears some relation to each of them. The 
nature of his work in relation to one or more of them deter- 
mines to what extent he is useful or harmful to the community, 
state, or nation. The useful, intelligent citizen follows some 
business or occupation successfully ; he contributes to the hap- 
piness and social life of the people in whose society he lives ; 
he takes an active interest in government or politics ; he takes 
an active interest in ethical or religious questions ; and he inter- 
ests himself in the educational affairs of his comnumity. 

Importance oe the Study oe Institutional Liee 

What is true of an individual in this respect is true also of 
a nation. It is very important, therefore, in studying the 
history of a nation to study carefully its institutional life. A 
nation should be judged not so nnich by the battles which it 
has fought, or by the territory which it owns, as by the condi- 
tions of its institutions. So far we have been studying the 



84 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

colonies mainly as related to their political history, or the insti- 
tution of government, which includes among other things the 
wars fought and the territory secured. While it is of impor- 
tance to learn about the institution of government, it is of even 
more importance to learn about the other four institutions. We 
shall now study the conditions of these four institutions in the 
colonies, and review the institution of government. 

Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Industries 

In the study of the growth and development of the nation 
the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the 
several sections deserves the most careful consideration. This 
difference determined to a certain extent that the South should 
be, until after the American Civil War. an almost strictly agri- 
cultural country ; that much of the land .should be divided into 
large plantations; that almost the entire time and energy of 
the southern people should be devoted to raising tobacco, rice, 
indigo, and cotton ; and that the labor of the South should be 
performed by negro slaves. It also determined to a certain 
extent that the people of the northern colonies should devote a 
large part of their time and energy to commerce and manufac- 
turing; that the agricultural land should be divided into a 
large number of small farms ; that many different kinds of 
agricultural products should be raised; that the labor of the 
North should be performed by freemen instead of by slaves; 
and that the social and political conditions of the North should 
be quite different from those of the South. 

Effect of Topography, Climate, and Soil on Slavery 

The difference between the topography, climate, and soil of 
the North and the South caused this great dift'erence between 
the industrial, social, and political conditions of the two sec- 
tions, by making slavery very profitable in the South and of 
very little profit in the North. IJccause slave labor could not 
be used with much profit in the North, slavery soon ceased to 
exist there; and because slave labor could be used with great 
profit in the South slavery soon became firmly established in 
that section. The fact that slaverv existed in the South and 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 85 

(lid not exist in the North caused the industrial, social, and 
political conditions of the two sections to become more and 
more unlike and to drift farther and farther apart, until the 
American Civil War destroyed slavery. It follows, therefore, 
that differences in topography, climate, and soil caused slavery 
to exist in the South and not in the North ; that slavery caused 
the industrial, social, and political conditions of the North and 
South to become more and more unlike ; that the great differ- 
ence between the industrial, social, and political conditions of 
the North and South caused the Civil War ; and that the Civil 
War, by destroying slavery, has caused these conditions in the 
two sections to become more and more alike, and has thus 
unified the nation. From all this it becomes plain that the dif- 
ference between the topography, climate, and soil of the North 
and South, and the different industrial conditions which this 
difference brought about, deserve the most careful considera- 
tion of the student of our country's history. 

The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Southern Sec- 
tion AND oE New England are Distinctly Different 

By far the larger part of the country formerly included in 
the southern colonies and in all the southern states that border 
on the Gulf of Mexico is level, in fact almost flat. This coun- 
try is drained by broad rivers which flow into the sea or into 
the Gulf. The soil is naturally very rich ; the rainfall is 
abundant ; the climate in summer is very hot, and with the ex- 
ception of Maryland and the northern part of Virginia, mild 
and pleasant in winter. The surface of New England is made 
up largely of hills and mountains, and is drained by short, rapid 
rivers. The soil naturally is not very fertile, and the climate 
in the winter is cold and severe. Both the broad, fertile plains 
of the South, and the hills, mountains, and small valleys of New 
England, were covered with a great, dense forest. 

The Topography, Climate, and Soil of the Middle 
Colonies 

The conditions of the topography and climate of this section, 
which embraced the colonies of New York, New Jersey, Penn- 



86 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

sylvania, and Delaware, arc about midway between those of 
the southern section on tlic one hand and of New Eng^land on 
the other. The soil, unlike that of New En_G,land and like that 
of the southern region, is rich. The rainfall is abundant, which 
is true also of both the other sections. The climate is not so 
cold as that of New England, and not so mild and pleasant as 
that of the southern territory. The surface of the land is not 
divided into a large number of small valleys, as is the case in 
New England ; neither does it consist of broad, extensive 
plains, as is the case in the southern section. 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 

The institution affected most directly by topography, climate, 
and soil is Business, or Industrial Life ; and it therefore will 
be the first institution discussed. Farming ; engaging in some 
profession, as law, medicine, or the ministry; mining; manu- 
facturing ; the carrying on of trade or commerce ; and all other 
things which men do to make a living, comprise the institution 
which is called Business, or Industrial Life. In order to add 
clearness to the treatment, the professions of law, medicine, 
and the ministry will be treated under the sub-head — Profes- 
sional Life in the Colonies. The other factors of Industrial 
life in the colonies will be treated under the sub-head — Com- 
mercial Indusl'ries. In treating the "Commercial Industries," 
each of the three groups of colonies will be taken up separately 
because the conditions of each group differ from those in the 
other two groups, and this difference had an important effect 
on some of the other institutions. 

I CoMMKRCiAi. Industries 

1. The Soiitlicrn Colonics 
(a) Products 

Tobacco is and has been from early colonial times 
one of the chief southern products. After its dis- 
covery by the first settlers of Virginia it gained rapidly 
in popularity in England and raising tobacco soon 
became the chief occupation of the colonists of Vir- 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 87 

ginia and iMaryland. In fact the whole Hfe of these 
two colonies centered around its production. It was 
used as money. A man's wealth was counted in 
pounds of tobacco. Laws were made regulating its 
production and the quality exported. Rice, indigo, 
and cotton w^ere the principal products of North and 
South Carolina and Georgia. These three products 
were as important in the three most southern colonies 
as was tobacco in Virginia and ]\Iaryland, and, like 
tobacco, they caused the growth of large plantations. 
Rice was the most important of these products, espe- 
cially in South Carolina, which led in its production. 
Comparatively little cotton was raised until after the 
Revolution and the invention of the cotton gin. The 
wealth of the southern colonies came largely from the 
exportation of tobacco, rice, and indigo. Wheat, 
hogs, and cattle were also raised, and resin and tur- 
pentine produced. 

(b) Plantations 

1. Relation to Growth of Cities and Manufactures 

The large number of rivers made it easy for most 
of the plantations to maintain their own warehouses. 
The vessels that carried the exports called at these 
warehouses on the different plantations along the 
rivers, and brought the things needed by the 
planter, but which was not produced on his planta- 
tion. This custom was the main reason why there 
were no large cities or manufactures in the southern 
colonies. There was no inducement for cither to 
grow. 

2. Relation to Growth of Slavery 

The production of tobacco, rice, indigo and cotton 
required a large amount of labor. ' Slave labor was 
cheap and well suited to this kind of work, while 
white labor was extremely hard to obtain. The 



88 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

planter soon came to depend almost entirely on the 
negro slave for labor, and as the plantations in- 
creased in size and number, the demand for slave 
labor became more and more urgent, and the num- 
ber of slaves increased rapidly. 

2. Nezv England 
(a) Occupations 

1. Agriculture 

The division of the country into small valleys 
prevented the growth of large plantations in New 
England, and the climate and soil prevented the 
extensive production of any one staple. It was 
hard for any New England colony to raise more 
food than it required for its own use, but the variety 
of products was much greater than in the southern 
colonies. These conditions made it almost impos- 
sible for New England to become wealthy and 
prosperous from farming, and the people therefore 
devoted a large part of their time and energy to 
fishing, commerce and manufacturing. 

2. Manufactures 

Although the colonial policy of England ham- 
pered the growth of ^nanufacturing, many things 
were made and thd^oundation was laid for the 
great manufacturing establishments that sprang up 
after the Revolution. Shops, where every form of 
trade was plied, lined the streets of the towns. The 
farmer made most of his tools and furniture and 
his wife spun the flax or wool, wove the cloth and 
made the clothing. The swift running rivers fur- 
nished the power for thousands of saw mills and 
grist mills. 



i 

Institutional Life in the Colonics 89 

3. Fisheries. Trade and Commerce 

One great source of wealth was the fisheries, of 
which the whale and cod were especially profitable. 
Large quantities of fish and fish oil were exported. 
The New England colonists gave a great deal of 
attention to commerce. New England built the 
best ships in the world. She built all her own ves- 
sels and many for other nations. She carried nearly 
all her exports and imports in her own ships, and 
her ships became an important factor in the com- 
merce of the West Indies and of Europe. In spite 
of her poor soil, and the fact that her imports were 
much larger than her exports, the wealth from her 
extensive commerce, together with the industry of 
her people, made New England wealthy, and caused 
the growth of many prosperous towns and cities, 
(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

In New England natural conditions forced the 
people into varied occupations in which slave labor 
could not be used with profit. Slavery, therefore, was 
gradually abolished and free labor made the basis of 
industrial life. There was no important class of 
people in New England that opposed slavery on moral 
grounds. Its growth was controlled by industrial 
conditions which were due to topography, climate, 
and soil. 

;?. The Middle Colonie^ 
(a) Occupations 
1. Agriculture 

Nearly all kinds of farm products were raised in 
the middle colonics. The fact that the climate and 
soil were suited to many products tended to pre- 
vent the growth of large plantations and the ex- 
tensive production of only a few staples. Farm 
produce and cattle were raised and sold in large 
quantities. 



90 'IlIE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

2. Manufactures 

ManufacturinjT^ was carried on to considerable 
extent. While there were no lari^e manufacturing- 
cstabhshments, the beginnings were being made. 
In New York cloth and glass were manufactured 
and saw mills and grist mills were numerous. In 
Pennsylvania clothing was made and iron ore was 
mined and exported. Ships were built at Philadel- 
phia, and the grist mills of Pennsylvania made into 
flour much of the wheat raised in Maryland and 
Virginia. 

3. Commerce 

Philadelphia and New York were two of the 
three leading commercial cities of the colonies. 
Their ships carried the produce of the colonies to 
nearly all the civilized nations of the world and 
brought back goods in return. 

(b) Relation of Industrial Conditions to Slavery 

Industrial conditions in the middle colonies made 
slavery of more value than in New England, but of 
much less value than in the South. Therefore the 
number of slaves was smaller than in the southern 
colonies and larger than in New England. 

II Pro1"KSSU)NAI< LiKii 
1. The Ministry 

The ministry was the onl\- one of the three learned 
professions that held in the colonies anything like the 
high position they hold today. In New England espe- 
cially the ministers were men of fine character, good 
education, and strong inlluence. They were leaders of 
the people, not only in religion, but in education, litera- 
ture, and even in law-making. In later years they lost 
much of their influence in the government, but retained 



histitutional Life in the Coluiiies 91 

their leadership in other respects. In tlie middle colo- 
nics also the ministers ranked high. They were able 
and energetic, and exerted great influence on the life of 
the people by establishing schools and by improving 
moral conditions. No one church was so powerful as 
was the Congregational church of the Puritans in New 
England, and hence the ministers did not have so much 
influence in government affairs. In most of the south- 
ern colonies the Episcopal church was the state church, 
and it was supported by public taxes. As the ministers 
received their salaries whether they performed their 
duties or not, and as many of them were unfit for their 
work, they exerted much less influence for good than 
the ministers in the other colonies. After the Revolu- 
tion, when the revenue from public taxes was taken 
away from the Episcopal Church, it secured a much 
abler class of ministers and they became a positive fac- 
tor for good in the commuity. The ministers of the 
other churches in the South were able men and tried to 
establish schools, but without success. 

2. Medicine 

As has been staled before, medicine as a profession 
amounted to but very little in the colonies, especially 
before l?.")!). This profession developed earliest and 
most rapidly in Pennsylvania and in this respect Massa- 
chusetts came next. From the very first in Pennsylvania 
there were some physicians who had secured their edu- 
cations in the • universities of England and were well 
(jualified to practice medicine. These did all they could 
to advance the profession. In 1731 the first medical 
work in the colonies was produced. This was written 
by Dr. Cadwalder from London, who later gave a course 
of lectures on anatomy and physiology, and in 17r)() 
became one of the first physicians of the hospital in 
Philadelphia. In 1700 Dr. Sheppcn and Dr. Morgan 
established in Philadelphia a medical college which five 
years later became a part of the University of Penn- 



92 THE THIRTEEN COLONIPZS 

sylvania. There were fewer quacks in Pennsylvania 
than in any of the other colonies. In New England, 
and especially in the southern colonies, druggists and 
barbers often practiced medicine and surgery along with 
their regular occupations, and this was the main reason 
why the people had so little respect for the medical pro- 
fession. There were but few good doctors in the south- 
ern colonies, — fewer than in New England. Many of 
the ministers of early New England had studied medi- 
cine before leaving England. They frequently acted as 
doctors and were better than most of those engaged in 
the profession. After these early ministers died the 
profession for a time fell into the hands of quacks who 
knew little about medicine. But the ability of the doc- 
tors soon improved and the profession became more and 
more respected. Just before the Revolution there were 
many able physicians in New England and they were 
highly respected. New England, however, was behind 
Pennsylvania in the matter of hospitals and medical 
schools. 

3. Lazv 

'Jlic profession of law was of more importance in New 
England and Pennsylvania than in any of the other 
colonies, just as was the case with the profession of 
medicine. Virginia, however, just before the Revolu- 
tion, had as many able lawyers as New England and 
more than 1 Pennsylvania or any of the other colonies. 
I'or a long time in New England, and for a longer time 
in Virginia, there were so few able lawyers, that 
the profession could hardly be said to exist at all. In 
Pennsylvania, on the other hand, there were a number of 
fairly good lawyers from the very hrst and the profes- 
sion was held in high esteem, which was not the case in 
any of the other colonies. P)Ut about 1750 the profession 
of law in New England was represented by a large 
number of very able lawyers, and a little later the same 
was true in \'irginia. Among the New England law- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies Q3 

yers at this time were John Adams, Samuel Qiiincy, 
Samuel Gridley and James Otis ; among those in Vir- 
ginia were Thomas Jefferson, Patrick Henry and George 
Mason. These men were just in time to prepare the 
colonies for, and to guide them through, the Revolu- 
tionary War ; and to help make, and to help put into 
effect, the present Constitution of the United States. 
Many of them made a world-wide reputation. To their 
wisdom and good common sense the people of the United 
States owe a great debt of gratitude. 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

The amusements of people, the social relations among the 
various classes of society, treatment of neighbors, customs of 
dress, daily manner of speaking and acting toward others, and 
all other things which interest or amuse men in a social way, 
constitute the social life of a people. Many of these social 
factors are closely related to industrial conditions. The social 
conditions in the southern colonies, in New England, and in the 
middle colonies, differed, and this difference was due largely 
to the difference in the industrial conditions in these groups of 
colonies. In fact, the more closely the history of any nation is 
studied, the plainer it becomes that its five institutions are 
closely related. The social conditions of a nation are closely 
related to each of its other four institutions, — business, govern- 
ment, religion, and education. Therefore, when studying any 
one of the five institutions in any nation, it is of importance to 
understand the relation of that institution to each of the other 
four. 

At the present time it is not eas}^ to realize how the people 
in the colonies lived, dressed, and amused themselves. This 
is due largely to the difference between the conditions which 
existed in the colonies and those which exist at the present 
time. It therefore becomes necessary to note carefully some 
of the conditions which made the social life in the colonies 
differ so much from the social life of today. Among the more 
important conditions that affected social life in the colonies 



94 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

were the newness of the country, the poor means of transporta- 
tion and communication and, in the southern colonies, the large 
plantations and mode of farming. The people of the colonies 
lived in the edge of a mighty forest that covered the entire 
country. At times this forest must have seemed to the lonely 
settlers as vast as the sea and as silent as death. They did not 
know how far this great forest extended, or what wild animals 
or races of men it contained. This life in the edge of a great, 
silent, and unexplored forest, and on the edge of the sea, 
afifected the customs and hahits of the people. The eflPect of 
this solitude on the lives of the southern people was emphasized 
by the almost total lack of cities and towns, and by the nature 
of plantation life. Nearly all the people lived on plantations 
which were usually far apart. This caused the people on the 
plantations to visit each other less frequently than they would 
have done had they lived in cities or close together on small 
farms. The poor means of transportation and communication 
in colonial times tended to make the life of the settlers still 
more lonely. The great improvements in modes of travel and 
communication since then have had a profound effect on social 
conditions. At the present time people, while eating breakfast, 
can read in the morning paper about all the important things 
that have taken place up to midnight of the day before, in all 
parts of the world reached by the telegraph. Often a new 
style of dress, or a new invention of some kind, will be used in 
many parts of the world within a few months after it is first 
made. It was quite different in the colonies. There were no 
railroads, or telegraphs, or telephones in the world at that time. 
People could not travel on the land except by walking, riding 
or driving. All mail and news had to be carried by the same 
means, and it should be remembered that there were very few 
roads then and that most of these were usually in a very bad 
condition. If I^oston had burned, it would have been five or 
six days before the news would have reached New York and 
many more days before the people in Virginia would have 
heard of it. This slow means of travel and communication 
made the life in the colonies, especially in the southern colonies, 
much more isolated and lonclv than it would have been had the 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 6S 

railroads and telegraphs existed. It also affected the customs 
and habits of the people by preventing them from becoming 
acquainted readily with the customs and habits of others. In 
studying the social conditions of the colonies it is well to re- 
member all these other conditions which helped to make the 
social conditions of that time so different from those of today. 

I The Southern Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 

At the time of the Revolution the total population of 
the southern colonies v/as about fourteen hundred 
thousand. Of this number about six hundred twenty 
thousand were negro slaves. As a whole the people of 
the southern colonies consisted of four classes — the 
negro slave, the white servants, the middle class, and 
the upper class. The middle class which consisted of 
those who owned the smaller farms and plantations, 
shaded gradually into the upper class, which consisted 
of those who owned the larger plantations. In the three 
most southern colonies there were only three classes to 
be found, the middle class being absent in South Caro- 
line, and the upper class being absent in North Carolina 
and Georgia. 

(a) The Negro Slave 

Far below all other classes was the negro slave. He 
was under the absolute control of his master, and 
could be bought and sold like any other property. 
Many of the slaves were savages, brought direct from 
Africa, and they were kept in dense ignorance in order 
that danger of insurrection might be lessened. In 
some of the colonies the negroes far outnumbered the 
whites, and the white people lived in constant fear of 
uprisings. This dread is shown plainly in many 
severe laws relating to the negroes. They were not 
allowed to leave the plantation to which they belonged 



96 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

without permits, and if they ran away might he killed 
by any one on sight. A white man could not be im- 
prisoned for killing a negro, but he might be fined. 
These severe laws would indicate that the negroes 
were badly and even cruelly treated, but as a rule 
such was not the case. The negroes employed on the 
small farms and as house servants were, as a rule, well 
treated in all the colonies. On the large plantations 
of South Carolina and Georgia they did not fare so 
well, for many of the planters lived in Charleston and 
left the control of their plantations and negroes to 
overseers, who often overworked the slaves and 
treated them cruelly. 

(b) Indented Servants 

Indented white servants were found in all the colo- 
nies. An indented servant was a person sold to some 
one for a certain number of years. During the term 
of the indenture or contract he belonged to his master, 
and could not leave without his consent, but after he 
had served the time specified he became free. These 
indented servants and the poor whites comprised the 
second class of society in the colonies, but, because of 
race and ability, were far above the negro slave. In 
character they ranged from English, Scotch and Irish 
prisoners of war to the common criminal. Many boys 
and girls were stolen in England and sent over to the 
colonies, and some honest and hard-working, but poor 
people, became indented servants in order to pay for 
their passage to America. As a class, however, the 
indented servants were of poor character, for the most 
part transported criminals and the scum of the cities of 
England, and when they became free, formed the most 
imdesirable class in the colonies. The laws relating 
to indented servants were very severe. During their 
term of servitude their condition was little better than 
that of the negro slave. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 97 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

The middle class in the southern colonies was com- 
posed of traders, merchants and small land holders, 
while the large land owners composed the upper class. 
The traders and merchants were held in contempt by 
the land owners, but there was no material distinction 
between the large and the small land owners. The 
owners of the large plantations were much like the 
country gentlemen of England, except that they were 
even more independent and aristocratic. They ruled 
the colonies in which they lived and were given cordial 
support by all the other classes. They were brave and 
emphatic in their defense of English liberty, and from 
this class came some of the leaders during the struggle 
for independence. Virginia alone, in this period, gave 
to the nation Washington, Jefiferson, Madison, Mar- 
shall and Henry. The conditions on the large plan- 
tations tended to develop men of strong character and 
ability. There were more than five hundred persons 
on some of these plantations, and their management 
required considerable ability. Frequently the owners 
of large plantations trained their slaves in the various 
trades so that very little outside help was required. 

2. Dress and Amusements 

In dress the upper classes followed the fashions in 
London, wearing rich, gay colored silks and velvets, rare 
laces and jewels, and powdered wigs. The plantations 
being so large and so far apart, there was less social life 
in the South than in some of the northern colonies. In 
Charleston, however, there was more gay social life than 
in any other city in America. The southern land-holders 
possessed great hospitality, and love for social life and 
out-door sports. Horse-racing and hunting were their 
two principal amusements. Rural field sports were also 
very popular and were usually under the direction of the 
planters. 



98 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

II New England 

1. Classes of Society 

The total population of New England at the time of 
the Revolution was about seven hundred thousand. Of 
this population the number of slaves did not exceed fif- 
teen thousand. As in the South, there were four classes 
of society — the slaves, the indented servants, the middle 
class, and the upper class. 

(a) Slaves 

The small number of slaves in New England was 
due largely to industrial conditions, and the industrial 
conditions of New England were the result, at least to 
a large extent, of its topography, climate and soil. 
The slaves were employed almost exclusively as house 
servants. They were treated kindly, owing to their 
close personal relation with their masters, and the laws 
regarding them were much milder than in the South. 

(b) Indented Servants 

There were comparatively few members of this class 
in New England. They were treated kindly, and after 
they became free, they usually succeeded in going into 
business for themselves. 

(c) The Middle and Upper Classes 

Most of the members of these two classes were of 
good English stock and there was no distinct line 
between them. The middle class was composed of 
farmers, merchants, and tradesmen, and formed the 
mass of the population. This class was much better 
educated in New England than in the other colonies. 
There was as distinct and as strong an aristocracy in 
New England as in the southern colonies but it rested 
on a somewhat different basis. The upper or aristo- 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 99 

cratic class was composed not of large land-holders 
but of those whose families for generations had been 
noted for their wealth and education or service to the 
government ; of those who were well educated ; of 
those who had performed valuable public service ; and 
of those who had been very successful as merchants 
or in commerce. 

2. Social Distinctions 

Nearly all offices were filled by men of the upper class. 
The son of a carpenter or a bricklayer or of any one 
engaged in a similar occupation could not hold office. 
In church people were seated according to their social 
position, and people were compelled to occupy the seats 
assigned to them. A student on entering college was 
assigned a position according to the social standing of 
his father. It is rather surprising that in a new country 
where labor was considered honorable that so many of 
the every day affairs of life should have been so much 
affected by social position. 

3. Dress and Amusements 

The nature of the Puritan religion had a great deal 
to do with the dress and amusements of the New Eng- 
land people. The Puritan religion made New England 
life earnest, simple and solemn. It taught that amuse- 
ments and undue hilarity and pleasure were the works 
of Satan. The wealthy class wore clothes of fine ma- 
terial but simple in style. The outdoor amusements 
consisted of hunting, fishing, sleighing and various 
athletic sports. After New England was placed under 
the royal governors the church lost much of its power 
in government affairs and the life of the people became 
brighter and more cheerful. While theatres were not 
countenanced until after the Revolution, balls and part- 
ies came to be an unquestioned part of social life. 



100 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

III The Middle Colonies 

1. Classes of Society 

At the time of the Revolution tlie total population of 
the middle colonies was about six hundred and seventy 
thousand of which number about sixty-five thousand 
were slaves. With the exception of the large Dutch 
land-holders along- the Hudson and Mohawk rivers in 
New York, the people of the middle colonies were di- 
vided into but three well defined classes — the slaves, the 
indented servants, and the class corresponding to the 
middle class in Virginia and in New England. 

(a) Slaves 

As in New England, nearly all the slaves were em- 
ployed as house servants, and consequently they were 
usually well treated. Although the number of slaves 
was small, at times there was fear of a slave uprising 
in the large cities. All such attempts, or even indi- 
cations of such attempts, met with severe punishment. 

(b) Indented Servants 

The number of indented servants was larger than 
in New England, and they were not so well treated. 
With the exception of Virginia. Pennsylvania con- 
tained more indented servants than any other colony. 

(c) The Middle Class 

The great mass of the people belonged to this class 
which was vigorous, earnest and progressive. There 
were fewer English in proportion to the population in 
the middle colonies than in any of the other colonies. 
New York contained a large number of Dutch, and 
the German, French, Scotch and Irish comprised a 
large part of the population of Pennsylvania and 
Delaware. 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 101 

(d) The Upper Class 

The only distinct upper class or aristocracy in the 
middle colonies was made up of the large Dutch land 
owners, whose ancestors had received grants of land 
along the Hudson and Mohawk rivers when the Dutch 
first settled New York. The owners of these estates 
had even more authority and power than the large 
land owners of the South. Each of the larger estates 
was entitled to one representative in the legislature 
of the colony. In some cases the owner held almost 
absolute power over his tenants, even to inflicting the 
death penalty for violation of laws. 

2. Dress and Aiiiiiscincnts 

In the country and small towns the life of the people 
was quiet and simple. As a rule the clothes were home- 
made of home-spun cloth. The amusements were few 
and simple, consisting of corn huskings and spinning 
bees, and of simple out-door sports. There was more 
social life in the country than among the New England 
farmers. On festive occasions there was a good deal of 
drinking and dancing. In the cities there was much 
gay social life. In dress, the wealthier class in Phila- 
delphia and New York followed the London fashions 
closely, both men and women wearing silk and velvet 
and rich, bright colored materials. The principal amuse- 
ments were balls, parties and theatres, and clubs for the 
young men. With the exception of Charleston, gay 
social life was enjoyed to a fuller extent in New York 
and Philadelphia than in any of the other cities in the 
colonies. 



102 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



GOVERNMENT 

In beginning the formal study of government, it is sug- 
gested that a general view of the subject be presented to the 
pupil by some such discussion as the following: 

Each pupil attending school lives with his parents, and is 
therefore one member of a family. He is also a member of the 
school that he attends. He is a citizen or member of the 
county in which he lives, and whether he lives in a town, a 
city, or in the country, he is a member of one of the parts or 
subdivisions of the county. He is also a member of the state 
in which he lives, and as the states make up the nation, he is a 
member of the nation, or, as is usually said, a citizen of the 
United States. Each family, school, subdivision of the county, 
county, state, and the nation also, have certain rules or laws 
which are called government. Each pupil, therefore, lives 
under several different forms of government. He lives under 
the government of his parents or guardian ; under the govern- 
ment of his teacher and the school trustees or board of educa- 
tion ; under the government of the city or other division of the 
county in which he lives ; under the government of the county 
in which he lives ; under the government of the state in which 
he lives ; and under the government of the United States. 
Everyone lives under these different forms of government and 
must obey the rules or laws of each. Men and women of 
course are not under the rules of the family and school in the 
same way that a pupil is, but they nmst obey the general laws 
relating to the family and school. With so many laws it would 
seem that the laws of the family, school, county, state and 
nation would conflict and interfere with each other. They do 
not, however, and this is most remarkable. All these laws 
work in harmony. This is not the result of chance or accident. 
Our ancestors for thousands of years have been working at the 
different divisions of government and making laws for each. 
A long time ago when our ancestors were savages the laws 
were rude and simple. Ever since then the laws have gradu- 
ally been changed, increased in number and made better, and 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 103 

at the present time they are being changed and made better 
each year. The laws have been changed and are being changed 
in order that boys and girls and men and women may live 
happier and more useful lives. 

I Local Government 

1. The County 

The governments of the state and of the United States 
are known as the state and national governments and 
that of the county and all smaller divisions is known as 
local government. To-day in nearly all the states west 
of the Appalachian mountains and in many of those east, 
the county is the most powerful unit or division of local 
government. Its powers and duties are next to those 
of the state, and they are carried out by a board of men 
called commissioners or supervisors, who are elected by 
the people. In nearly all the counties these county 
boards must levy taxes and take general charge of the 
money affairs of the county, look after the schools, con- 
struct bridges and roads, and look after the poor. In 
addition to this board of commissioners or supervisors, 
there are a number of other county officers, as sheriff, 
treasurer, assessor, tax collector, superintendent of 
schools, auditor, recorder and judge. From this it will 
be seen that the county is a very important unit of gov- 
ernment. The county did not always have these great 
powers, but in all the colonies except New England and 
South Carolina the county was the most important unit 
of local government. In New England it possessed 
some important powers. In each county there was a 
county court composed of men elected by the people and 
of others appointed by the governor, which could in- 
terpret the laws in certain cases, lay out public roads, 
and oversee the township officers. It was not so im- 
portant as the township, however. In the South, ex- 
cept in South Carolina, the county had control of all im- 
portant local affairs. In Virginia the county court 



104 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

wliose members were appointed by the governor, acted 
as a judicial body and had general charge of the affairs 
of the county, such as levying taxes, care of the public 
money, and appointing some of the county officers. In 
all the colonies except South Carolina and those of New 
England, the county was the local unit that elected dele- 
gates to the legislature or law making body of the 
colony. In the middle colonies the county was espe- 
cially important. The Pennsylvania plan of county 
government has been adopted by a large majority of the 
states. In that colony the county board consisted of 
three commissioners elected by all the people of the 
colony, and had great power in local aflfairs. A number 
of other county officers were elected by the people and 
considerable power given to them. Each county so far 
as its local afifairs were concerned, was a little republic. 
Most of the states which have adopted this plan have 
changed it somewhat. In New York the members of 
the county board were called supervisors and were 
elected by, and represented, the different townships of 
the county. This plan also has been copied in some of 
the states. 

2. The Tozvnship 

In New England each county consisted of towmships. 
Townships were formed before the early counties were 
organized. This was due to the fact that the Puritans 
came over in congregations and established towns. A 
town in New England included not only the town proper, 
but the adjacent country also. In New England, there- 
fore, "Town" and "Township" meant the same in so far 
as it relates to a unit of local government. These town- 
ships had by far the most power in local affairs. Meet- 
ings called town meetings were held by all the voters in 
the township, and at these meetings people could levy 
taxes and direct the management of the money raised, 
could elect delegates to the legislature of the colony, 
could elect township officers, and could provide for 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 105 

schools. In fact they could act on all the more import- 
ant local affairs. While the township has lost some of 
its powers, it is still the most important unit of local 
government in New England. The principle of town- 
ship government exists in most of the states at the 
present time but in a different sense than in New Eng- 
land. Most of the country west of the Appalachian 
mountains has been divided into townships by the gov- 
ernment of the United States, and these divisions are 
often used for purposes of local government. In many 
states the counties have been divided into districts, pre- 
cincts, or townships, but not the six-mile-square town- 
ship established by the National Government. These 
smaller divisions are used simply for the management 
of purely local affairs, and do not affect general county 
government. 

3. The Parish 

In South Carolina each county was divided into sub- 
divisions called parishes or districts, and they were the 
most important unit of local government. They had 
much the same power as the township in New England, 
and the county was of even less importance than in New 
England. The parish remained the unit of local gov- 
ernment in South Carolina until after the Civil War, 
when the county was given control of local affairs. In 
Virginia the counties were divided into parishes, but the 
ofificers of the parish had little to do except to look after 
the affairs of the Episcopal Church. 

II Colonial and State Governmlnt 

Next to the county in the affairs of government is the 
state. The states in matters of government have control of 
all those things that the people have not given to the na- 
tional government of the United States or which are not 
controlled by the county or the smaller units of local gov- 
ernment. The people of the United States have given to 



106 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

the national government control of all those things which 
affect the nation as a whole, and have reserved to the 
states all other powers of government. That part of these 
reserved powers which affects more directly the people of 
the entire state, is given to the state government. The 
other part of these reserved powers belongs to the county 
and the smaller vmits of local government. The division 
of all these powers of government, — national, state, and 
local — is stated and defined in the national and state consti- 
tutions, which have been adopted by the people either by 
direct vote or by representatives whom they have elected. 
The state constitutions give to the state government the 
power to outline and define in many ways the powers of 
local government, but as the state officers are elected by the 
people, they carry out the wishes of the people in these 
matters. Thus it follows that in the United States the 
people are the source of all power, and that they have the 
power to change a law or even the form of government. 

1. State Government — Legislative Department 

National, state, and local governments consist of three 
departments — the legislative, the executive, and the ju- 
dicial. The legislative department makes the laws; the 
executive department executes or enforces them; the ju- 
dicial department interprets, or tells what the law means, 
and applies them to the affairs of life. The legislative 
department in all the states consists of two houses. The 
upper house is the smaller, and in every state is called 
the Senate. The lower house is usually called the As- 
sembly or House of Representatives. The legislative 
department of the national government also consists of 
two houses. The upper is called the Senate and the 
lower the House of Representatives. The legislative 
department in the county consists of the board of com- 
missioners or supervisors, and the legislative department 
of cities or other smaller units of local government con- 
sists of similar bodies. The members of the legislative 
department in all the states and in all the units of local 



Institutional Life in the Colonics . 107 

government are elected by the people. The state legis- 
latures have important power and have control of many 
things. "All of the general laws under which our local 
governments and schools are organized, those referring 
to the state and local courts and procedure in these 
courts, those dealing with the making and enforcement 
of contracts, the transfer of property, marriage and di- 
vorce, with the prevention of the spread of diseases, with 
the incorporation of business houses — all of these form 
only a part of the vast number under the charge of the 
legislatures, the whole, covering a set of subjects of the 
first importance not only because there are so many, but 
because all are of such interest to us in our home and 
business life." 

2. State Government — Bxeciitive Department 

In all the states the highest executive officer is the 
Governor; in the national government, he is the Presi- 
dent of the United States ; and in the larger towns he is 
called the mayor. In the counties the various county 
officials attend to the executive business. While the 
Governor is at the head of the executive department of 
the state, there are a number of other executive officers 
in the state who assist in enforcing the laws. Among 
the other more important executive officers of each state 
are the Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Con- 
troller, Treasurer, Superintendent of Public Instruction, 
and Attorney-General. The governor is always elected 
by the people, and so are the other executive officers, ex- 
cept in a few states where some of them are appointed 
either by the governor or by the legislature. The lieu- 
tenant-governor usually presides over the Senate when 
it is in session and takes the governor's place if he re- 
signs or dies, and when he is absent from the state. 
The other executive officers just named perform the 
duties of their various offices. All local officers also 
must assist in enforcing the laws of the state, and this is 
a great help to the state officers. The governor is by 



108 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

far the most important executive officer in the state. 
He is commander-in-chief of tlie state soldiers or mihtia, 
and when the other state or local officers cannot enforce 
the laws, he may call on the soldiers to assist in their en- 
forcement. 

3. State Government — Judicial Department 

The judicial department of each state consists of a 
supreme court and of a number of lower courts. The 
judicial department of the national department also 
consists of a supreme court and a number of lower 
courts. Next to the supreme court of the state are the 
circuit or district courts (in some states) ; next to these 
are the county courts ; and next to the county courts are 
the city courts and the justices' courts. The judges in 
all these courts are elected usually by the people, but in 
several states some of them are appointed by the gov- 
ernor or legislature. The members of the supreme court 
are elected usually by the people of the entire state, and 
a judge in a lower court is elected by the people in that 
division of the state of which he is a judge. The city 
courts and justices' courts try the less important cases; 
the county courts those which are of still more impor- 
tance and from the last named courts cases may be 
appealed to the supreme courts. Many cases may be 
appealed from the lowest courts in the state up through 
all the others, and some cases may be appealed from the 
state supreme court to the United States courts. 

4. Colonial Government — Legislative Department 

The colonial governments, like the state governments 
of to-day, consisted of three departments — legislative, 
executive, and judicial. The legislative department in 
all the colonies, like those in all the states to-day, con- 
sisted of two houses. The lower house was usually 
called house of representatives, the assembly, or house 
of burgesses. The members of the lower house, as is 



Institutional Life in the Colonics 109 

the case in all the states today, were elected by the 
people. But there was one important difference. In all 
the colonies, no one could vote for a member of the lower 
house or for any other officer of the colony, unless he 
owned a certain amount of property, whereas today 
in the United States no property qualification is required 
of a voter. The upper branch of the leg^islature in the 
colonies was called the council and consisted usually of 
twelve members, called assistants or members of the 
Governor's council. Except in Connecticut and Rhode 
Island, the members of the council were either appointed 
by the governor or by the lower house, as was the case 
in Massachusetts, and approved by the governor. In 
Connecticut and Rhode Island, the members of the upper 
house were elected by the people. Thus it becomes 
plain that except in these two colonies, the governor, by 
his power of appointment, practically controlled the 
upper branch of the legislature. It should be remem- 
bered, however, that with the exception of Connecticut 
and Rhode Island, the upper house, or council, had very 
little to do with making the laws. The main duty of the 
council was to advise the governor and to assist him in 
carrying out the duties of his office. 

5. Colonial Government — Executive Department 

The executive department in each colony consisted of 
the governor and the governor's council or upper house 
of the legislature. In Rhode Island and Connecticut the 
governors were elected by the people, and in Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware, and Maryland they were appointed by 
the proprietors. In all the other colonies they were 
appointed by the king. The royal and proprietary gov- 
ernors possessed the important powers of vetoing laws 
passed by the legislatures, and of appointing judges and 
other officers. They were continually quarreling with 
the lower house except in Rhode Island and Connecticut 
where the governor and both houses worked together 
harmoniouslv. 



110 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

G. Colonial Government — Judicial Department 

Tlie judicial department was merged into the execu- 
tive department in the colonies, the governor and his 
council acting as the supreme judicial body of each col- 
ony. The minor judicial officers were appointed by the 
governor, although in a few cases they were elected by 
the people. 

7. Colonial Government — Classes 

Colonial government may be divided into three classes, 
on the basis of the manner of selecting the governor. In 
the charter government the people chose the governor. 
In the proprietary government the proprietor selected 
him, and in the royal government he was appointed by 
the king. But these names as to form of government 
are of very little importance. The important facts are 
that in all the thirteen colonies the lower, and by far the 
more important, branch of the law-making body was 
elected and controlled by the people ; that in all the colo- 
nies except Connecticut and Rhode Island, the council 
or upper house of the legislature was not elected by the 
people, but was appointed by the governor; and that 
in all the colonies, with the same two exceptions, the 
governor was not elected by the people, but was ap- 
pointed either by the king or by the proprietor. 

(a) Charter Government 

A charter government was one established by a 
written contract between the king and the colonists, 
stating the share which each should have in the gov- 
ernment of the colony. This charter or contract could 
not be changed legally without the consent of both 
parties. During the eighteenth century. Connecticut 
and Rhode Island were the only real charter colonies. 
Massachusetts was about half charter and half royal. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 111 

(b) Proprietary Government 

A proprietary government was established when 
the king granted a large tract of land to some indi- 
vidual, who, by the terms of the grant, had the right 
to organize a colony and to appoint the governor. 
During the eighteenth century, Pennsylvania, Dela- 
ware and Maryland were the only proprietary colo- 
nies. 

(c) Royal Government 

In the case of a royal colony, the king appointed a 
governor. The royal colonies were directly under the 
control of the king, but as stated above, the people 
controlled the legislative department. During the 
eighteenth century all the colonies, except the charter 
and proprietary colonies, were royal colonies. 

Ill National Government 

The national government of the colonies was the same 
as that of England. The English Parliament and the 
English king were the highest government authority in 
England and they were also the highest government au- 
thority in the colonies. The English king and Parliament 
bore, in a general way, the same relation to the colonies 
that the national government of the United States at the 
present time bears to the various states. When the people 
of the colonies became independent, they established the 
national government to take the place of the English king 
and the English Parliament. 

T\' Relation oe Colonial Government to Present State 
Government 

We have already seen that local government to-day is 
the direct outgrowth of local government in the colonies. 
From a study of colonial government it becomes plain, that 
the legislative, executive and judicial departments of the 
state governments in the United States at the present time 
are simply the modification and expansion of these depart- 



112 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

nicnts in tlie colonies. The colonial legislature consisted 
of a lower and an upper house. The lower house corre- 
sponds to the lower house in the state legislature today, 
and there have not been many important changes in its 
nature. The council, or upper house, in the colonies cor- 
responds to the state senate, or upper house, in the state 
legislature at the present time, but the council has under- 
gone a great change. The members of the senate are 
elected by the people and the senate has as much power in 
making laws as the lower house. The governor is at the 
head of the state executive department today, as he was 
at the head of that department in the colonies, but he is 
elected by the people. The same close relation between 
colonial times and the present time, exists in the judicial 
departments. The different courts in the colonies corre- 
spond closely W'ith the courts in the states at the present 
time, except that most of the judges are now elected by 
the people, and are separate and distinct bodies, whereas 
in the colonies the courts were often the legislative and 
executive departments. The colonial governments of Con- 
necticut and Rhode Island were so much like those of 
today, that their charters were adopted as their state con- 
stitutions and remained in effect until long after the Revo- 
lution, the only important change being the omission of 
the king's name in the public records and documents. The 
charter of Connecticut remained the constitution of that 
state until 1818, and the charter of Rhode Island remained 
in effect until 1842. The greatest change in government 
since colonial times has been in the election of officers, and 
in the right to vote. Nearly all officers — local, state, and 
national — are now elected by the people, whereas in th^ 
colonies many of them w^ere appointed. In the colonies 
no one who did not own a certain amount of property could 
vote for any officer of the colony, or for any local officer. 
At the present time no property qualification is required 
of any voter anywhere in the United States. All this 
means that the people have become much more democratic 
since colonial times. 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 113 

RELIGION : GROWTH OF RELIGIOUS LIBERTY 

I Religious Liberty at the Present Time 

If the government of an}- civilized nation at the present 
time should kill or imprison or punish in any way, a person 
because he belonged to a certain church, its action would 
be severely condemned by almost every one. Scarcely any 
one today believes that a man should be killed or punished 
in any way because he may be a member of the Methodist, 
Presbyterian, Catholic or any other church. The right of 
a person to think and to act in religious matters as he may 
desire, so long as he does not interfere with the rights of 
others, is now conceded by almost everybody. So thor- 
oughly is this principle established and accepted that the 
government of the United States, or of any other civilized 
nation, would use its entire power to protect its citizens in 
their rights to enjoy quietly and peacefully their religious 
ideas. 

II Religious Persecution in Europe 

The right of a person to enjoy quietly and peacefully 
his religious ideas is called "religious liberty." Strange as 
it now seems people have enjoyed religious liberty but for 
a very short time. Less than two hundred and fifty years 
ago, men and women were put to death in almost every 
nation, simply because they wished to belong to some other 
church than the one protected by the government. In 
Spain, France and Germany thousands were killed for this 
reason and many more were imprisoned or otherwise pun- 
ished. Hundreds were put to death in England for the 
same reason. In all of these countries men and women 
were burned to death and tortured in other ways, because 
they would not uphold the established or state church — 
that is, the church protected by the government. In 1080 
thousands of Huguenots were massacred in France. 
Women and children were dragged from their beds in the 
night and murdered because of their religious ideas. From 



114 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

1G85 to 1700 fully two hundred thousand Huguenots left 
France in order to escape these relic^ious persecutions. 
From 1550 to 1G50 more than one hundred thousand per- 
ished in the religious wars of Europe. 

Ill Rkugious Persecution in the Colonies 

These persecutions for religious reasons were not re- 
stricted to the (^Id World. Some of the English colonies 
in America did the same thing. For a long time in INIas- 
sachusetts, men and women were not permitted to estah- 
lish any church except the Congregational or Puritan 
church, or to teach or preach any religious doctrine except 
that of the Congregational church. The government of 
Massachusetts whipped, imprisoned, and banished men 
and women because of their religious ideas. These perse- 
cutions did not stop with such punishments. Four Quakers 
were hanged in Boston — two men in 1G59, one woman in 
IGGO, and another man in IGGl. These four people were 
hanged by order of the court, and because they demanded 
the right to preach the doctrine of their church. It is 
absolutely incorrect to say that the Puritans came to New 
England for the purpose of establishing religious liberty. 
They came to the New World in order to escape the perse- 
cutions of the Episcopal church in England. They had 
no intention whatever of permitting any church to be estab- 
lished in New England except the Congregational church. 
Some of the other colonies w^ere almost as severe as the 
colonies of Massachusetts and New Haven. In Virginia 
there were severe laws against the members of all churches 
except those of the Episcopal church. Members of other 
churches were imprisoned and banished from the colony. 
The Catholics first settled Maryland and granted relig- 
ious liberty to every one in the colony, but as soon as the 
members of the Episcopal church secured control of the 
colony, they passed severe laws against the Catholics and 
the members of the other churches. With but few excep- 
tions. Catholics were persecuted in all the colonies. Rhode 
Island was verv liberal in reliijious matters. Pennsvlvania 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 115 

established complete religious liberty from the very first. 
The members of all churches, including those of the Cath- 
olic church, could worship in this colony without the least 
fear of persecution. In 1789 the Congress of the Con- 
federacy recommended the religious policy of Pennsyl- 
vania for adoption by all the states. After the Revolution 
there was complete religious liberty in all the states, and 
no public money whatever has since been used for the 
support of any church. 

IV Churches Have Not Been Responsible for Religious 
Persecution 

It is but natural that people today should condemn, 
severely, the religious persecutions referred to above. But 
it should be remembered that the people of today would 
have done the same thing had they lived in those times. 
Neither can any church be held responsible for these per- 
secutions. In Europe, outside of England, the Catholic 
church directed the persecutions ; in England, and in Vir- 
ginia and Maryland the persecutions were directed by the 
Church of England or the Episcopal church ; and in New 
England it was done in the name of the Puritans or Con- 
gregational church. In fact, up to about two hundred and 
fifty years ago, the leading or state religion of almost every 
nation during the past twenty-five hundred years has per- 
secuted and killed those who did not agree with it on relig- 
ious questions. It may be said that religious persecutions 
have been due to the fact that the great mass of the people 
were not as well educated nor as highly civilized as they 
are at the present time. It has been true in the history 
of the world, that when a large number of the people in a 
nation became fairly well educated they have demanded 
political liberty, that is, the right to make the laws which 
they must obey. When the people of a nation have secured 
the right to make their own laws, they have usually become 
more liberal in religious matters. This tends to prove that 
religious liberty in a nation follows closely general educa- 
tion and political liberty, and that it does not depend on the 



116 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

attitude of any church. Man by nature is narrow and 
unjust in reHgious matters, and it has required long cen- 
turies of education and civihzation to make him broad and 
liberal along these lines. 

V Rkligious Libkrty in the United States: Causes of its 
Growth 

The United States was one of the first nations to estab- 
lish complete religious liberty. At the beginning of the 
Revolution most of the colonies had already established 
religious liberty and the Revolution swept away the last 
vestige of religious persecution. One of the main things 
that caused the growth of religious liberty in the colonies 
was the establishment of public schools. For centuries the 
churches of the leading religion of a nation had control of 
education. This was also true in early Virginia and most 
of New England, but gradually in nearly all the colonies, 
the government took control of education. This made edu- 
cation more general and of a higher grade. It also pre- 
vented any church from using any public money to estab- 
lish schools in which children were taught its own doc- 
trines. In a republic like the United States a free public 
school system which shall not be under the control of any 
church and in the schools of which the doctrines of no 
church shall be taught must be maintained. The churches 
may, and most of them do, maintain private schools, but 
the American people insist, and wisely, that they shall not 
control, in any way, the free public school system. An- 
other thing that helped to cause the rapid growth of relig- 
ious liberty in the colonies, was the separation of Church 
and State. In the colonies of Massachusetts and New 
Haven, the church and state were united at first, and in 
Virginia and several of the other southern colonies, public 
money was used for the support of the church. But the 
Puritan church was soon separated from the government 
in New England, and while the Episcopal church in Vir- 
ginia received public money until about the time of the 
Revolution, it had little or no control of the government of 



Institutional Life in the Colonies 117 

that colony. This separation of church and state helped 
the growth of rehgions liberty because when a church loses 
control of the government it is placed on an equal footing 
with all the other churches, and has no power to persecute 
anyone. This is as it should be. Religion is a question 
that each person must settle for himself — it is a question 
between each person and the Supreme Being. The churches 
should have no control whatever over the government or 
over the free public school system, and no church or person 
should interfere with, or persecute, any one because of his 
religious ideas. 



EDUCATION 

Comparison of Colonial Schools with Those of the; 
Present Time 

Very few of the boys and girls who are now attending 
the public schools in the United States realize what a great 
advantage they have over those who went to school fifty or 
even twenty-five years ago. The primary, the grammar 
and the high schools have improved wonderfully during 
the past twenty-five years. Eighty-five years ago there 
were very few free public schools in the United States, 
and they did very poor work as compared with those of 
today. The average high school now is doing as good 
work and is offering as high grade courses of study as 
were Harvard and Yale Colleges in 1800, and this was 
one hundred seventy years after Boston was founded, and 
one hundred sixty-four years after Harvard College was 
founded. It has been said by one writer that the grammar 
schools of today are doing as good work as did William 
and Mary College in Virginia one hundred twenty-seven 
years ago, at the beginning of the Revolution. For one 
hundred fifty years after Virginia and New England were 
first settled there were practically no public schools of any 
kind in any of the southern colonies. While it is true that 
soon after they were founded all the New England colo- 



118 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

nies except Rhode Island passed laws which compelled 
every town with fifty or more families to maintain a public 
school of some kind, these laws were not always enforced. 
From the very first, however, there were a number of 
schools in New England, and in matters of education she 
was far ahead of all the other colonies. Nearly everybody 
in New England could read and write, but a majority of 
the children were taught at home. 

II Condition of Schools in England 

The free public school system of England was not estab- 
lished until 1870, thirty-three years ago. When the colo- 
nies were first settled, and for a long time afterwards, 
education in England, as compared with that of today, was 
in a most wretched condition. In 1700 more than half of 
the English people could not read or write their own 
names, and as late as thirty years ago (1873) twenty out of 
every hundred could not. When the English colonies in 
America were founded, there were no public schools in 
England. There were a number of church and other pri- 
vate schools, but the great mass of the boys and girls did 
not attend these. Therefore when the Englishmen who 
founded the colonies left the mother country, there were 
no public schools, and education was controlled by the 
church and by private individuals. It is but natural that 
these men, when they settled in the New World, should 
follow the same plan of education. New conditions in the 
colonies caused this plan to be changed somewhat. In the 
southern colonies the change was for the worse; in the 
New England and in some of the middle colonies the 
change was for the better. 

III The; Southern Colonies 

When the colonies were settled it was but natural that 
educational afifairs should be left to the church as they had 
been in England. As the ability of the ministers was. as 
a rule, poor, educational affairs were much worse in the 



Institutional Life in tlic Colonics 119 

southern colonies than in England. Other causes of the 
poor condition of education in the southern colonies were 
the manner of living and the opposition of the royal gov- 
ernors to any system of education. The plantation life 
hindered the building up of towns or schools, and educa- 
tion was restricted largely to the upper class. The chil- 
dren of the wealthy studied under tutors, and the sons often 
finished their education abroad. The royal governors op- 
posed general education on the ground that it would make 
the people discontented and hard to govern. There were 
few schools in any of the southern colonies, those few being 
established by private individuals or the churches. Mary- 
land was the only one that made any real efifort to establish 
schools that should be controlled by civil power. A college 
was established in 1692 by royal charter from King Will- 
iam and Queen Mary and given their names. The work 
done by this college before the Revolution was no better 
than that done today in the grammar schools, but it was 
the only college in the southern colonies before the Revo- 
lution. 

IV New England 

The church and the ministers determined the kind and 
character of education in New England, just as they had 
in the southern colonies. The ministers of New England 
were of the ablest class in the colonies, well educated, ear- 
nest and upright. The Puritan religion demanded that 
every man and woman should read and understand the 
Bible, and it therefore became the duty of the ministers to 
see to it that all the people should receive enough educa- 
tion to enable them to do this. As early as 1647 Massachu- 
setts Bay Colony had a law providing that every town con- 
taining fifty or more families should maintain a school. 
This is the first instance in modern history that the civil 
power of any colony, state or nation provided for a public 
school system. The passage of this law was due to the 
Puritan religion and to the Puritan ministers. Other laws 
were passed regarding the establishment of schools in all 



120 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

the New England colonics and thus the foundation of our 
present public school system was laid. The New England 
colonies also laid the foundation for some of the greatest 
universities in the United States. Harvard, Yale, Dart- 
mouth and Brown Colleges were all established during the 
colonial period. 

V The Middle Colonies 

Tn the matter of education the middle colonies were 
behind New England and ahead of the southern colonies. 
In New York a number of fairly good schools was estab- 
lished and partly supported by the government. In New 
Jersey there were a few good schools maintained by the 
towns or the Presbyterian church. Outside of Philadel- 
phia, education in Pennsylvania and Delaware was in a 
very poor condition. From the first, Philadelphia main- 
tained schools with only a small tuition fee. It was one of 
the most progressive cities in the colonies in all matters 
of education and learning. Franklin was her leading citi- 
zen and the greatest scholar in the colonies. It was due to 
his efforts that the University of Pennsylvania which 
ranked first among all colonial colleges was founded. 
Princeton and Kings (Columbia) Colleges were also 
founded during this period. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE IN THE COLONIES 

Introductory 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully what is meant by the institutional life of a 
nation. Show carefully by illustrations how the life of every 
citizen is related to each of the five institutions. Why should 
a nation be judged largely by the condition of its institutions? 
Tell in a general way how topography, climate, and soil brought 
about different conditions in the North and South. (All of the 
questions given above are somewhat difficult, but they are very 
important and should receive most careful consideration.) Make 
a careful comparison of the topography, climate, and soil of the 
southern colonies and the New England colonies. Compare the 
topography, climate, and soil of the middle colonies with the 
topography, climate, and soil of the New England and the southern 
colonies. Explain fully and carefully how topography, climate, 
and soil have affected the history of the United States. 

INDUSTRIAL CONDITIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Why do topography, climate, and soil affect business or in- 
dustrial conditions more than any other of the institutions? De- 
scribe fully what industrial life includes. What were the leading 
southern products? Tell all you can about the culture of tobacco 
in the southern colonies. Give a careful explanation of why laws 
were passed to regulate its production and the quality exported. 
Discuss the production of rice and indigo in the southern colonies. 
Discuss the production of cotton in these colonies. Tell to what 
extent other products were raised in each of the southern colonies. 
Explain carefully how topography, climate, and soil encouraged 
the growth of large plantations in the South. Discuss the selling 
and buying of produce and goods on the plantations. Discuss 
the eflfect of large plantations on the growth of cities. Explain 
carefully how the large plantations affected the growth of slavery. 
Why were there few free laborers in the South? How did the 
lack of free labor affect the growth of manufactures, commerce, 
and similar industries? 



122 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

Why were there no large plantations in New England? Why 
did the farmers of New England raise a great variety of products 
instead of a few staples, as did the planters of the South? What 
caused many of the people of New England to engage in other 
occupations besides farming? Describe the manufactures of New 
England. Tell what you can of the fisheries. Discuss the con- 
ditions of trade and commerce, and explain carefully their effect 
on the wealth and prosperity of New England. Why was there 
so little slavery in New England? If instead of a hilly country, 
poor soil, and cold winters, New England had a warm, pleasant 
climate, and consisted of broad, fertile plains, what would have 
been the effect on industrial life and on slavery? Describe care- 
fully the condition of farming in the middle colonies, and explain 
how this condition of farming in these colonies was related to 
topography, climate, and soil. Compare the condition of farm- 
ing in the middle colonies with its condition in the southern 
colonies and in New England. Describe the manufactures of the 
middle colonies. Why did England try to prevent the growth 
of manufactures in the colonies? How did this affect the colonies? 
Describe the commerce of Philadelphia and New York. Explain 
carefully the efifect of industrial conditions in the middle colonies 
on slavery. Compare this effect with the effect of these conditions 
on slavery in New England and in the southern colonies. What 
does all this prove as regards the effect of topography, climate, and 
soil on the history of the United States? 

Compare the condition of the professions of law and medicine 
in the colonies with the condition of these professions today. De- 
scribe the character and position of the ministers of New England. 
Explain very fully why the ministers were of so much importance 
and had so much more influence in New England than in any of 
the other colonies. In what way and why did the ministers of 
Massachusetts lose much of their influence after that colony be- 
came a royal province? Describe the character and work of 
the ministers of the middle colonies. What is a state or Estab- 
lished church? Is it good policy to have a church supported by 
public taxes? What can you say of the ministers of the Established 
church in the southern colonies? Why did they have less influence 
than the ministers of the other colonies or of the other churches 
in the South? When the Episcopal church ceased to be the 
state church, what change took place in the character and in- 
fluence of its ministers? Describe the character and work of the 
ministers of the other churches in the southern colonies. 

What was the general condition of the medical profession in the 
colonies? Tell what you can of this profession in Pennsylvania, 
noting the ability of the doctors, the medical schools, and tiic 
iiDspitals, What can you say of the profession of law in the 



Questions and Topics 123 

colonies? What change was there in the condition of this pro- 
fession just before the Revolution? Compare the southern with 
the middle and New England colonies in respect to the character 
and ability of their lawyers. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

What is meant by the institutional life of a nation? Show by 
illustrations how the life of every citizen is related to each of the 
five institutions. Why are topography, climate, and soil important 
influences in history? Discuss the topography, climate and soil 
of the South and their effect on the industrial life of the southern 
colonies. Discuss the topography, climate, and soil of the middle 
colonies and New England, and their effect on the industrial life 
of these sections. Discuss the causes of the growth of large plan- 
tations in the South. Discuss the relation of the plantation system 
to the growth of slavery and to the growth of cities. Discuss 
the effect of slavery on manufactures and commerce in the South. 
Compare the industrial conditions of New England with those of 
the southern colonies, and discuss the cause of difference. Dis- 
cuss the commercial industries of the middle colonies. Discuss 
the conditions which tended to cause the growth of slavery in the 
South and to cause abolition in the North. Show the effect of this 
on the industrial and political life of the nation. Discuss the 
character and position of the ministers in the colonies, comparing 
those of different sections of the country. Discuss the condition 
of the medical profession in the colonies. Discuss the profession 
of law in the colonies. 

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each 
pupil should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in 
American History," pp. 165-199, and the second number of these 
readers, pp. 1-69. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) 
What constitutes social life? In what way is the institution of 
society related to the other institutions? Explain fully the more 
important conditions affecting social life in the colonies, and 
compare those conditions with some of the conditions which exist 
today. Name and describe carefully the four classes of society 
that existed in the southern colonies. (Each pupil should draw 
a map of the southern colonies and indicate plainly on it the strip 
of country in which the large plantations and the slave population 
existed.) What was the condition of the negro slave when he was 



124 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

first brought to America? Why was he not educated in the 
southern colonies? Describe the laws relating to the negroes. 
Why were such laws passed? Tell all you can about the actual 
treatment of the slaves. Explain carefully why there was a dififer- 
ence in the treatment of slaves in the extreme southern colonies — 
Georgia and South Carolina — and those southern colonies farther 
north. Give a careful discussion of some of the results of slavery. 
Describe the character of the indented servants of the southern 
colonies. Give a full description of how they were treated. Com- 
pare their condition with that of the slaves. What distinctions 
existed between the middle and upper classes in the southern 
colonies? In what way did slavery alifect the attitude of the upper 
class toward tradesmen and merchants? Describe the character 
and position of the southern gentlemen. What can you say of 
their patriotism? Name some of the leading patriots of our nation 
who belonged to the upper class in the southern colonies. Show 
how the conditions of plantation life tended to develop men of 
strong character and ability. Describe the industrial life on a 
large plantation. Describe the dress of the upper class. What 
amusements were most popular with the Southerners? Describe 
the rural field sports. 

What classes of society existed in New England? Describe each 
class. Describe the treatment of the slave and indented servants. 
Upon what basis did the distinction between the middle and upper 
classes rest in New England? How did this differ from the 
Southern basis of aristocracy? How did a man's social position in 
New England affect his prominence in politics? How did class 
distinctions enter into the every-day life of the people? How' 
did they affect college life? What was the effect of the Puritan 
religion on the dress and amusements of the people? Describe the 
amusements of the New England people. What effect did the 
coming of the royal governors have on the social life of New 
England? 

Compare the middle colonics with those of New England and 
the southern colonies in regard to white and slave population. 
What classes of society were found in the middle colonies? Com- 
pare the treatment of slaves in these colonies with their treatment 
in the southern colonies and in New England. What was the 
character of the indented servants of the middle colonies? What 
proportion of the total population of the middle colonies was of 
English descent? Compare this proportion with the proportion 
which existed in New England and in the southern colonies. Of 
what did the aristocracy of New York consist? Compare the 
owners of large estates on the Hudson w'ith the large land-holders 
of the South in respect to position and power. Describe the dress 
and amusements of the people of the country and small towns. 



Questions and Toffies 125 

Describe the dress and amusements of the upper classes in the 
cities. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the general conditions aflfecting social life in the colonies. 
Discuss briefly the classes of society existing in the colonies. Dis- 
cuss the condition of the slaves in the colonies, comparing their 
condition in the various colonies. Discuss the middle class in 
New England and in the southern and middle colonies. Discuss 
the character and position of the upper class in New England, 
and in the southern and middle colonies. Discuss the social dis- 
tinctions existing in New England and in the South. Discuss the 
dress and amusements of the people of the colonies. 

GOVERNMENT 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Under what different forms or divisions of government does 
each person live? Brieflj^ describe each division. Explain care- 
fully how each person is a member of each of these divisions. 
Explain carefully why the laws of these different forms of gov- 
ernment do not conflict. How did these different forms of gov- 
ernment and these different laws come to exist? Why do we 
have so many different divisions of government and so many 
different laws? What is national government? Explain carefully 
what constitutes local government. What is the most important 
unit or division of local government Who carries out the powers 
and duties of the county? How are the members of this board 
selected? By what two names are the members of this board 
known? Do most of the states call them supervisors or commis- 
sioners? How are the supervisors elected? How are the commis- 
sioners elected? Explain carefully the powers and duties of the 
county board of commissioners or supervisors. Name some of 
the other more important county officials. (Before taking up the 
next topic, the teacher and pupils should make a careful study of 
the duties and powers of all their county officials, and also of 
their city, township, and school officials.) 

Compare the powers of the county in the colonies with its 
powers toda}^ Compare the powers and duties of the county in 
the New England, the southern, and the middle colonies. Explain 
carefully what constituted the township in New England. Explain 
carefully what constituted the town meeting. Give a careful ex- 
planation of the duties, powers, and value of the town meeting. 
Compare the powers and duties of the town meeting in New Eng- 



126 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

land (luring colonial times with those which the county court then 
possessed there. Compare the powers and duties of the town 
meeting in New England at the present time with those which 
the county officials now possess. Compare the powers and duties 
of the county in South Carolina during colonial times with those 
which the parish and district possessed there at that time. Com- 
pare carefully the duties and powers of the county in South 
Carolina at the present time with those which the parish and 
township now possess there. What is the nature of the parish 
as it exists in Louisiana today? 

What were the powers and duties of the parish in Virginia 
during colonial times? What was the county board in Virginia 
called? What were the members of this board called? How 
were they elected? Explain carefully the powers and duties of 
the county court in Virginia. During colonial times, how did the 
powers and duties of the county in Virginia compare with the 
powers and duties of the county in Georgia, North Carolina, and 
Maryland? Explain carefully the changes which have taken place 
in the county in these states since colonial times. To what extent 
did the Virginia county afifect the organization of the county in 
the West? Compare the powers and duties of the county in the 
middle colonies with those which the township and parish pos- 
sessed there at that time. Why does the county as it existed in 
the colonies of New York and Pennsylvania deserve special notice? 
Give a careful discussion of the New York county, and explain 
carefully to what extent it affected the organization of the county 
in the West. Give a careful discussion of the Pennsylvania county 
and explain carefully to what extent it affected the organization 
of the county in the West. Compare the New York, the Penn- 
sylvania, and the Virginia county of colonial times with regard 
to powers and duties in local government. 

State briefly, but clearly, what the result has been in the contest 
of the county, township, and parish for power in local government. 
What will very likely be the future of the county as to power 
in local affairs? Explain carefully the influence and the value 
of the principle of township government in the smaller local aflfairs. 
Explain why the people desire to have these smaller units of local 
government. To what extent is this desire being carried out at 
the present time? What is the value of these smaller units of 
local government? What is the duty of every citizen toward 
them? 

What affairs of government are under the control of the state 
government? What aflfairs of government are under the control of 
the national government? How did each of these forms of gov- 
ernment secure the powers which they have? Explain carefully 
how the people in matters of government in the United States 



Questions and Topics 127 

are the source of all power. Of what three departments does 
national, state, and local government consist? What are the 
general powers and duties of each department? What is the 
object for dividing government into these three departments? 
Of what two houses or divisions does the legislative department 
of the state and national government consist? What is the object 
for this division? What is the legislative department of the county? 
How are the members of the legislative department of state and 
local government selected? Discuss the powers and duties of the 
legislative department of state government. 

What is the highest executive officer in the national government 
called? What is he called in the state governments? Who are 
the executive officers in the county government? What are some 
of the other state executive officers called? How are the state 
executive officers selected? Tell what you can about the general 
powers and duties of the state executive officers. Of what do 
the judicial departments of the slate and national governments 
consist? How are the state and local judges elected? Tell what 
you can about the powers and duties of these different courts and 
how cases may be appealed from one to the other. 

In what respects are local, state, and national government alike? 
Explain carefully the real difference between these three forms 
or divisions of government. (Before taking up the next topic the 
teacher and pupils should make a general but careful study of the 
government of the state in which they live.) 

Into how many departments was the government of the various 
colonies divided? What was the lower house of the legislature 
called in the different colonies? How were the members of the 
lower house elected? Explain carefully what qualifications were 
required of those who voted for members of the lower house. 
What was the upper house of the legislature called? How were 
its members selected in the various colonies? Name some of the 
important powers and duties of the lower house in the various 
colonies. Name the more important powers and duties of the upper 
house of the legislature in the various colonies. Compare these 
powers and duties with the powers and duties which belong to the 
upper branch of the state legislature at the present time. Of 
what did the executive department of the government in the 
various colonies consist? Explain carefully how the governor in 
each colony was selected. Explain how the manner of selecting 
the governors gave rise to three so-called classes of government 
in the colonies. Explain in what respects these three classes of 
government differed. Explain carefully how the people really 
controlled the law-making body in each colony. What were the 
powers and duties of the governors in each colony? Of what 
did the judicial department in each colony consist? What were 



128 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

the different courts in each colony called? How were the judges 
of these courts selected? What were tlie powers and duties of 
these different courts? 

Of what did the national government in the colonies consist? 
Explain carefully to what exent the colonists were willing to 
acknowledge the authority of Parliament. In what respect did 
Parliament and the legislatures of the colonies bear the same 
relation to the king? Why was this principle very important 
to the colonists, and why did they insist on carrying it out? 

Compare carefully the lower branch of the colonial legislatures 
with the lower branch of the state legislatures. Compare carefully 
the upper branch of the colonial legislatures with the upper branch 
of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the executive depart- 
ments of the colonial legislatures with the executive department 
of the state legislatures. Compare carefully the judicial depart- 
ments of the colonial legislatures with the judicial departments 
of the state legislatures. To what extent does all this indicate 
that state government is simply the modification and expansion of 
colonial government? In what respects has government changed 
most since colonial times? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation between local government in the colonies 
and local government at the present time. Show in what way 
the state legislative department today is simply an outgrowth 
and modification of the legislative department of the colonies. 
In what ways do the state executive departments today resemble 
the executive departments in the colonies? Explain the relation 
between the judicial department of today and the judicial depart- 
ment of the colonies. What change has there been since colonial 
times as to the number of officers elected directly by the people? 
What change has there been as to the qualifications of voters? 

RELIGION 
Questions for Class Recitations 

To what extent may a person at the present time do as he 
pleases in regard to religious matters? What is meant by religious 
liberty? Describe the religious persecutions which have taken 
place in Europe. Compare the condition of religious liberty in 
the United States today with its condition in Europe about the 
time the colonies were settled. Did the Puritans come to America 
for the purpose of establishing religious liberty? Tell all you can 
about the persecution of people in New England on account of 



Questions and Topics 129 

their religious ideas. Describe the religious persecutions in tlie 
other colonies. Tell what you can about the laws made in the 
various colonies against certain churches. To what conditions are 
religious persecutions due? What is the relation between political 
and religious liberty? How are general education and political 
liberty related? Describe the religious conditions in Rhode 
Island and Pennsylvania. Explain how the establishment of public 
schools aided the growth of religious liberty in the United States. 
Explain carefully the importance of the free public school system 
to the welfare of the nation. What is meant by the separation 
of church and state? How did the separation of church and state 
affect the growth of religious liberty in the colonies? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the condition of religious liberty in Europe about the 
time the colonies were settled. Discuss the condition of religious 
liberty in the colonies. Discuss the growth of religious liberty 
in the United States. Discuss the causes of religious persecution. 

EDUCATION 
Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on Education, each pupil 
should read the first number of Hart's "Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 201-233. See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) 
Compare carefully the schools of the colonies with those of today 
in regard to number, kind, and nature of work. Explain carefully 
the condition of schools and general education in England at the 
time the colonies were settled. Describe the school system that 
existed in England at that time. Explain fully, how and to what 
extent the condition of education in England affected the con- 
dition of education in the colonies. 

How did the character of the ministers influence educational 
conditions in the South? What was the effect of plantation life 
on the building up of schools? What was the attitude of the royal 
governors toward general education, and what effect did this have 
on the establishment of schools? How were the sons of rich 
planters educated? Describe the condition of education in the 
southern colonies. Tell what you can of the founding of the 
college of William and Mary. Give a full description of the 
influence of the Puritan ministers on education in New England. 
Explain carefully how the Puritan religion served to encourage 
education and the establishment of schools. Tell what you can 
of the first laws establishing public schools in America. Explain 
y 



130 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

carefully why these laws were of great importance in the history 
of the world. Describe the public schools of each of the New 
England colonies. Describe the founding of colleges in New 
England. Tell what you can of the customs and studies in these 
colleges. Compare the schools of the middle colonics with those 
of New England and the southern colonies. What support did 
the government give to the schools in the middle colonies? De- 
scribe the educational work of the churches. How did the general 
education of the people of the middle colonies compare with that 
of the people of New England? Describe the schools of Phila- 
delphia, and explain fully the work of Franklin in advancing 
education. Compare the colleges of the middle colonies with those 
of New England. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the educational conditions in England at the time of the 
founding of the colonies. Explain how the plan of education in 
England affected education in the colonies. Discuss the influence 
of the ministry upon education in the colonies. Discuss the origin 
of the public school system. Compare New England, the southern, 
and the middle colonies in respect to general education. Why was 
New England ahead of the other colonies in the matter of general 
education? Discuss the colleges of the colonies. Compare in a 
general way educational conditions in the colonies with educational 
conditions in the United States at the present time. 



ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

I American Institutions: Changes in, and From 

Where Derived 
D. 198 

II Government in England 

1. Relation to Government in the United States 

D. 199 

2. Outline of Struggle betzveen King and People 

D. 200 

3. The five Rights Demanded by the Bnglish People 

(a) The Right of Taxation 

D. 201 

(b) The Right of Habeas Corpus 

D. 2or 

(c) The Right of Trial by Jury 

D. 202 

(d) The Right of Privacy in the Home 

D. 202 

(e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter So](h'ers 

D. 202 

4. How Englishmen Secured these Rights 

D. 203-206 

III Transfer oe English Rights and Institutions to 

America 

D. 206-207 



ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

I American Institutions: Changes in, and From Where 

Derived 

From the study of colonial institutions in the previous 
chapter, it is plain that our institutions today are a direct 
outgrowth of these institutions as they existed in the colo- 
nies. There has been considerable change in industrial 
conditions, due to the great inventions and discoveries in 
science. Industrial progress has been Ijrought about largely 
through the general intellectual advanccnient, and in turn 
it has made further advancement possible along the line of 
general education. It is but natural that these changes 
should have had a marked effect on the other institutions. 

As our institutions of today are a direct outgrowth of 
the colonial institutions, so the institutions of the colonies 
were borrowed directly from England. It is a mistaken 
idea that the colonists began everything anew when they 
crossed the Atlantic. Their ideas of government, religion, 
and the other institutions were brought directly from Eng- 
land, but modified to suit the conditions in the New World. 
These institutions had been developing in England for 
more than a thousand years. 

II Government in Engeand 

1. Relation to Government in tJie United States 

A brief comparison of government in the Ignited States 
with that in England shows that the two are closely re- 
lated. The form of England's government is today 
practically what it was when the colonists came to Amer- 
ica. In England government is divided into Executive, 
Legislative, and Judicial branches, as it is in America. 
The king corresponds to the president ; the legislative 
branch in each country consists of an upper and a lower 
house; in many respects the judiciary of the United 
States is similar to that of England, and moreover the 



Govcrmncnt in England 133 

great body of English laws has been embodied in our 
legal system with but few fundamental changes. In 
local government there are many points of similarity. 
The county and township existed in England centuries 
before America was discovered. 

2. Outline of Struggle Bctiveen King and People 

While the English king today is the executive head 
of the nation, he is such only in theory. The long strug- 
gle between the king and parliament that lasted from the 
Norman Conquest, lOGG, to the end of the American 
Revolution, 1783, finally resulted in the complete triumph 
of the English parliament over the king. The early part 
of the struggle resulted in the acquisition of Magna 
Charta, 1215, and the beginning of the House of Com- 
mons, 1265, and the latter part was characterized by the 
great Puritan Revolution, 1641-1649, and the fall of 
arbitrary rule under George III. 

3. The Five Rights Demanded by the English People 

The long struggle outlined above covered a period of 
seven centuries. The Rights that were gradually ac- 
quired by the English people were 

(a) The Right of Taxation 

This means the right of the people to vote taxes 
through their representatives. It was a protest against 
the practices of the kings who frequently levied taxes 
in an arbitrary manner, and not always for the public 
good. 

(b) The Right of Habeas Corpus 

This means the right of a person in prison to de- 
mand that cause be shown for his imprisonment. This 
right gave relief against arbitrary imprisonment by the 
kincr. 



134 ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

(c) The Right of Trial by Jury 

This right gives the accused the right to a verdict 
by twelve fellow citizens, and gives protection against 
arbitrary punishment. 

(d) The Right of Privacy in the Home 

In times past, in England and even in the colonies, 
general warrants were issued by courts that permitted 
an officer to search any house he pleased for any arti- 
cles suspected of being smuggled or stolen, as the case 
might be. At the present time, a search warrant must 
designate the house to be searched and must specify 
the articles searched for. 

(e) The Right of Refusing to Quarter Soldiers 

This right grew out of the protest against the prac- 
tice of quartering soldiers on private citizens during 
times of peace. 

4. Hozv Bnglishmen Secured These Rights 

These five rights were not acquired at the same time ; 
nor was any one of these principles firmly and finally 
established without first having been partially gained and 
lost many times, according as parliament or the king 
was the stronger. In 1215 King John had become so 
oppressive that the barons took up arms against him and 
forced him to sign the Great Charter of English Liber- 
ties, or Magna Charta, as it is called. In later years the 
privileges gained in Magna Charta were allowed to 
lapse and on several occasions later kings were forced 
to re-affirm this charter. In 1265 the House of Com- 
mons was first convened and by 1400 it had become a 
well established branch of parliament. In spite of the 
growth of the power of parliament, kings in numerous 
cases were able to rule without its assistance. By 1600 
parliament had become quite powerful. During the next 
half century it was to measure its strength with that of 



Transfer of English Rights and Institutiotis to America 135 

the despotic Stuarts. In 1G28 Charles I. attempted to 
raise revenues without the consent of parUament, and 
was forced to sign the Petition of Rights. When later 
he violated his promises, the people arose in revolt, 1641- 
1649, and Charles I. was beheaded. This made parlia- 
ment more powerful than ever, but it was not until the 
end of the American Revolution that it became finally 
supreme. 

Ill Transfer of English Rights and Institutions to 
America 

When the English colonists came to America, they came 
as Englishmen, and even after several generations they 
still considered themselves Englishmen. It was but natural 
then that they looked upon the institutions and rights of 
their English forefathers as their heritage. However, in 
transplanting these institutions to the New World, they 
made some important changes that put the colonies on a 
more democratic basis than the mother country. This was 
but the natural result of colonizing in a wilderness far 
removed from the controlling influences and associations 
of the mother country. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

ORIGIN OF AMERICAN INSTITUTIONS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain to what extent the five institutions as they exist in the 
United States today are related to the form and condition of 
those institutions as they existed in the colonies. What has caused 
the change in these institutions since colonial times? From 
where did the particular forms or kinds of these institutions as 
they existed in the colonies come? For about how long were 
they being developed before they were brought to America? 

Explain quite fully the relation of government in England to 
government in the United States. Give a brief statement of the 
long struggle between the English king and the English people 
over the question of English rights. Explain fully what is meant 
by the Right of Taxation. Why are the people so anxious to have 
this right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Habeas 
Corpus. Why is this right so valuable? Explain fully what is 
meant by the Right of Trial by Jury. Why is this a very valuable 
right? Explain fully what is meant by the Right of Privacy in 
the Home. Why are the people anxious to have this right? Ex- 
plain fully what is meant by the Right of refusing to Quarter 
Soldiers. Why is this a valuable right? 

What is the Magna Charta? How did the English people secure 
it? What did the English people do when a king disobeyed this 
charter, and tried to take away their rights? What is the English 
Parliament? What part of the national government of the United 
States corresponds to Parliament? When did Parliament first be- 
come fairly well established? How did most of the English kings 
treat Parliament? Discuss the struggle between Parliament and 
James I. and Charles I. How did America assist in helping 
firmly to establish the authority of Parliament? How were 
English rights and institutions transferred to America? What 
was the feeling of the colonists toward England and English rights 
and institutions? What caused the five institutions, and especially 
the institution of government, to become somewhat changed in 
the colonies? What was the nature of this change in the institution 
of government? 



Questions and Topics 137 



Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the relation of government in England to government 
in the United States. Discuss the five more important English 
rights, explaining the nature and value of each. Discuss the 
struggle between the English people and their kings over these 
five important rights. Discuss the transfer of English rights and 
institutions to America. 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

(In connection with this chapter, each pupil should read the 
second number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 153-309.) 

A CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

I Causes of the Revolution 

D. 211-213 

1. Bnglish Control of Colonial Commerce 

D. 213-215; Mc. 108; Ma. 136-137, 139-140; 
G. 130-133; T. 107-109; M. 152-153 

2. Taxation Without Representation 

(a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Con- 

gress, 1765 

D. 215-217; H. II. 153-162; Mc. 112-115; 

Ma. 140-145; G. 133-138; T. 110-114; 

M. 154-155 

(b) The Declaratory Act, 1766 ; The Towns- 

hend Acts, 1767 
D. 217-221; H. II. 162-166; Mc. 117-120; 
Ma. 145-146; G. 138; T. 114-123; M. 
155-158 

3. The Repressive or Intolerable Acts, 17^4 

D. 221-222; Mc. 120; Ma. 151-152; G. 144- 
145; T. 123-126; M. 158 

II The Beginnings oe the Revolution 

1. Grozvth of Colonial Union 

(a) Committees of Correspondence, 1772 

D. 222-225; Mc. 121; Ma. 142-143, 146, 
149-150 ; G. 142 ; T. 120-121 ; M. 159 



Campaigns 139 

(b) The First Continental Congress, 1774 

D. 225-227; H. II. 168-169, 104; Mc. 121- 
122 ; Ma. 152-155 ; G. 145-146 ; T. 125- 
127; M. 159-160 

2. Concord and Lexington, 1775 

D. 227-231; H. II. 257-260; Ma. 155-158; G. 
147-149 ; T. 128-129 ; M. 160-162 

3. Siege and Capture of Boston, i'jj^-i'j'j6 

D. 231-235; H. II. 208-209, 261-266; Mc. 129- 
131; Ma. 151-162; G. 149-153; T. 131-134; 
M. 162-166 

4. Declaration of Independence, 1776 

D. 235-240 ; H. II. 172-175 ; Mc. 131-135 ; Ap- 
pendix 1-4; Ma. 162-165; G. 153-157; T. 
134-139; M. 167-168 

5. Comparison of Resources of England and America 

D. 240-243 ; T. 132 

B CAMPAIGNS 

I Thk Campaign to Separate; New England from the; 

Othe:r States, and the Campaign Against Phil- 
adelphia AND THE Middle States 
D. 243-261; H. II. 191-192; Mc. 135-143, 146-149; 
Ma. 165-184 ; G. 158-175 ; T. 139-160 ; M. 169-182 

II Campaign Against the Southern States 

D. 261-269; H. II. 307-309; Mc. 143-146; Ma. 186- 
195; G. 181-191; T. 160-165; M. 181-188 

C RESULTS OF THE WAR 

D. 269-270; Mc. 149-152; Ma. 195-198; G. 191-192; T. 
165-166; M. 188-189 



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

At the close of the French and Indian War in 17G3, the 
Enghsh colonists in zA.merica were loyal English subjects. They 
were proud of their English origin ; proud of English history, 
considering it part of their own inheritance. England had no 
more loyal subjects than the Americans. They had confidence 
in her government, and with reverence called her the Mother 
Country. Although there had been continual disagreements 
between the colonists and the officers in America appointed by 
the king, all these disputes had been local, and had not materi- 
ally afifected the loyalty of the colonists to England. In less 
than fifteen years from this time, these same colonists were in 
open rebellion, carrying on war against England. There were 
vital and far reaching causes which brought about this change 
of feeling, and these were the causes which led to the Revolu- 
tion. 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

I Causes of tiii; Revolution 

1. English Control of Colonial Commerce 

Up to the time of the American Revolution the pre- 
vailing idea regarding colonies was that they were 
planted and existed for the benefit of the home country, 
especially in respect to trade. In order to control the 
commerce of her colonies, England passed trade laws 
known as the Navigation Acts, and these were funda- 
mentally connected with the causes of the Revolution. 
These laws extended from 1G51 down to the Revolution. 
Their object was to secure to English merchants a 
monopoly of the carrying trade of England and her 
colonies. In some cases small duties were levied on 
exports and imports, but these duties were levied mainly 
in order to secure the better enforcement of the Navi- 
gation Acts, and not in order to raise money for the 



„ . . ■ 1 41 

Causes and Beginnings 

English government. The laws regulating colonial com- 
merce were not rigidly enforced in America unti after 
the French and Indian War. Althongh the colonists 
were irritated by these laws, they did not offer any seri- 
ous objection to them until Writs of Assistance were 
issued, enabling English officers to enter private houses 
and search for smuggled goods. These writs of assist- 
ance were search warrants and were so general m nature 
that they could be tyrannically used for personal and 
malicious ends, and their issuance caused bitter feeling. 

2. Taxation Without Representation 

There was no central government in America which 
had the power to provide for the defense of all the colo- 
nies by raising soldiers and by levying taxes. It was 
very plain that this country would need to be protected 
and the British government decided to place an army m 
the colonies for their defense to be partly supported by 
the colonists by means of a tax. Parliament levied this 
tax itself on specific articles instead of allowing the colo- 
nists to tax themselves to raise the necessary amount. 
The colonists had no representative in Parliament. They 
would probably have submitted to the Navigation Acts 
and to the nominal taxes which some of them imposed. 
They would not, however, pay taxes levied for the pur- 
pose of revenue, and especially direct taxes, unless they 
had some voice in such taxation. They did not object 
to the amount of the tax, but to the principle involved 
Eno-hshmen, by more than a century of struggle, had 
secured the right to vote taxes through their represent 
tatives The colonists considered themselves English- 
men with all the rights of Englishmen, and hence they 
refused to submit to taxation without representation. 
In other words, the Revolution was brought about be- 
cause Englishmen in America were denied the rights 
enjoyed by Englishmen in England. It should be re- 
membered that these rights were denied the colonists in 
America, not bv the people of England, but by the King 



142 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

and his ministers. The common people and the best 
statesmen in England, like the colonists, were opposed 
to the levying of taxes where the people taxed had no 
voice in the voting of them. William Pitt was one of 
the English statesmen who saw that the Americans were 
contending for a principle, and when he became Prime 
Minister, he opposed the levying of direct taxes on the 
colonists. He was glad that the colonists resisted the 
unjust taxation because he believed that if the King 
could unjustly tax the colonies, he might attempt to 
overthrow the constitutional liberties of England. 

(a) The Stamp Act and the Stamp Act Congress, 1765 

The Stamp Act passed in 17G5 was the first attempt 
of the English Parliament to levy internal taxes on 
the colonies, and the colonists strongly resented it as 
an infringement of their rights. This tax was put in 
the form of stamps to be placed on legal documents 
and printed papers and pamphlets, Parliament consid- 
ering this the easiest way of raising a tax, and the 
least likely to cause trouble. Virginia led the opposi- 
tion of the colonies by passing a set of resolutions 
against taxation without representation. The colonies 
sent to the King and Parliament many petitions 
against the Stamp Act. This feeling of opposition led 
to the calling of a congress composed of delegates 
from the different colonies for the purpose of draw- 
ing up a united remonstrance against the act. Nine 
of the colonies sent delegates, and this congress drew 
up and signed a "Declaration of Rights and Griev- 
ances." This was the first time that the colonies acted 
in unity. 

(b) The Declaratory Act, 1766 ; The Townshend Acts, 

1767 

When Parliament was forced, partly by the opposi- 
tion of leading English statesmen and partly by the 
protests of English merchants who suffered from the 



Causes and Beginnings 143 

conditions in America, to repeal the Stamp Act, it 
passed at the same time what is called the Declaratory 
Act, which asserted the right of Parliament to legis- 
late for the colonies on all questions. In the follow- 
ing year a series of acts known as the Townshend 
Acts were passed which asserted the right of Parlia- 
ment to tax the colonists, and levied import duties on 
certain articles of common use. The opposition of 
the colonists to these acts was so violent that all ex- 
cept one were repealed. The tax on tea was retained 
merely to assert the authority of Parliament in regard 
to taxation. It was just this principle that the colo- 
nists were standing for, and they refused to pay even 
this tax. The tea sent over was, in most cases, not 
allowed to be landed, and in some cases it was de- 
stroyed. At Boston a body of men boarded a tea ship 
in the harbor and threw the tea into the ocean. This 
is known as the Boston Tea Party. 

3. The Repressive or Intolerable Acts, i'/74 

The action of the colonists regarding the tea tax 
angered the King and Parliament, and a series of acts 
were passed for the purpose of punishing Massachu- 
setts. The first of these acts, known as the Boston Port 
Bill, provided for the closing of the port of Boston, and 
the third act, which annulled the charter of Massachu- 
setts and provided for a military governor with arbi- 
trary power, were especially tyrannical. These acts 
served to rouse the people of all the colonies to the dan- 
ger their liberties were in, and to prepare their minds for 
rebellion. 

II The Beginnings oe the Revolution 
1. Growth of Colonial Union 

(a) Committees of Correspondence, 1772 

The royal governors were alarmed and angered at 
the stand taken by the colonists with regard to the tea 
tax, and in 1772 the governor of Massachusetts dis- 



144 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

solved its legislature in order to prevent united action 
by the colony. Through the efforts of Samuel Adams, 
committees were at once appointed by the various 
towns in order that there might be united action, and 
to look after the interests of the colony. Soon events 
led Virginia to appoint a permanent Committee of 
Correspondence to communicate with the other colo- 
nies regarding their general welfare, and plans of 
action. Within a year similar Committees of Corre- 
spondence had been appointed in all of the colonies. 
The work of these committees was very important, 
as it prepared the Americans for united action in the 
struggle which was to follow. 

(b) The First Continental Congress, 1774 

The passing of the Repressive Acts led directly to 
the calling of a congress of delegates by the colonies. 
This congress was a direct outgrowth of the Corre- 
spondence Committees, and it marked an advance 
step. It contained delegates from all the colonies ex- 
cept Georgia, and thus represented the feeling of the 
colonics as a whole. It met with the definite purpose 
of obtaining a redress of grievances and had as mem- 
bers most of the ablest men in America. In addition 
to drawing up a Declaration of Rights, and issuing 
addresses to Englishmen, to Americans, and to the 
King, asking for the protection of these rights, this 
congress decided upon a definite plan of action by all 
the colonies, and made provision for effectively carry- 
ing out these plans. 

2. Concord and Lexington, 1775 

When the petitions of the Continental Congress were 
ignored by the King and by Parliament, and Gage was 
sent over as military governor of Massachusetts, the 
colonists began active preparations for war. Arms and 
provisions were collected and volunteer soldiers were 
enrolled and drilled in the various colonies. Patriotic 
societies were formed among both men and women for 



Causes and Beginnings 145 

the purpose of resisting the attacks on Enghsh rights in 
America. 

An attempt by Gage to seize snppHes stored by the 
colonists at Concord resulted in the first bloodshed of 
the war. While the number lost was small on both 
sides, these two engagements inflamed the colonists as 
no merely political act could have done. 

3. Siege and Capture of Boston, 1775-1776 

After the battles of Concord and Lexington the Brit- 
ish under Gage were shut up in Boston by colonial sol- 
diers. The Continental Congress assumed control of 
the troops besieging Boston, made Washington com- 
mander-in-chief, and took measures to obtain more men 
for the continental army, as it was now called. The 
battle of Bunker Hill was the most important engage- 
ment of this siege. While the British were victorious 
their victory was dearly bought. In substance it was a 
victory for the Americans as it gave them confidence in 
their ability to resist English arms. After a siege of 
nearly a year, the British were compelled to evacuate 
Boston. During this time the fortress of Ticonderoga 
and the small fort of Crown Point had been taken by 
colonial soldiers, and an unsuccessful expedition had 
been sent into Canada. 

4. Declaration of Independence, 1776 

The action of the king in rejecting all petitions, in 
declaring the colonists rebels, and in hiring foreign 
troops to put down the rebellion, led the colonists to 
decide upon complete independence of Great Britain. 
The formation of state governments, and the publica- 
tion of numerous patriotic writings aided the. colonists 
in reaching this conclusion. A resolution affirming the 
independence of the colonics was passed by the Conti- 
nental Congress on Jidy 2ud, 177(1, and two days later 
the Declaration of Independence was adopted. 



146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

5. Comparison of Resources of England and America 

England had great advantages over the colonists in 
respect to wealth and population, but these were offset 
to some extent by the distance of the colonies from Eng- 
land, and by the hostility of other European nations to 
Great Britain. Both England and America suffered 
from lack of unity in the support of the war, but Eng- 
land suffered the more, for while there were many in 
America who sympathized with the English and even 
aided them, in England the leading statesmen strongly 
opposed the war from the beginning to the end. The 
colonies' greatest weakness lay in their lack of a strong 
central government with power to raise money and sol- 
diers and to conduct the war with vigor. While Eng- 
land could obtain almost any amount of military supplies 
and troops, the Americans had great difficulty in these 
respects. On the other hand, the Americans had an 
advantage in the superiority of their commanders, and 
in the patriotic spirit of their army. 

CAMPAIGNS 

After the English under Gage sailed away from Boston on 
March 17, 1776, they made no further attempt during the war 
to invade and subdue New England. Neither did they make 
any serious attempt during the war to invade and subdue Vir- 
ginia. Virginia and New England each contained about 700,- 
000 people, which made their combined population about equal 
to that of all the other states. The people of Virginia and New 
England were united and aggressive in their opposition to 
England. Lexington, Concord and the siege of Boston had 
taught the British that an invasion of New England meant the 
stout and active resistance of almost every man. They knew 
that the people of Mrginia were just as united and determined 
as those of New England, and that an invasion of that state, 
the home of Washington, would meet with the same strong 
resistance. The British decided, therefore, to leave New Eng- 
land and Virginia, with their large and hostile populations, 



Campaigns 147 

alone, and try to subdue the other states which contained fewer 
people and in which they hoped to find many people friendly to 
them. They thought that if they could get control of most 
of the other states, Virginia and New England would be com- 
pelled to submit. After the capture of Boston by Washington, 
the king and his ministers and generals, therefore, planned 
three general campaigns — two against the middle states and one 
against the far southern states. One was to capture New York 
City, and to secure control of the Hudson river and of as much 
of the state of New York as possible. The success of this 
campaign would have been of great value to the British, because 
it would have given them control of a direct line of communi- 
cation between New York City and Canada, and as the English 
had control of the sea, this would have completely separated 
New England from all the other states. The object of the 
other campaign against the middle states was to capture Phil- 
adelphia, the largest city in America, and to secure control of 
as much of Pennsylvania and New Jersey as possible. By the 
southern campaign the British hoped to capture the cities of 
Charleston and Savannah, and to secure control of Georgia, 
South Carolina and North Carolina. 

I The Campaign to Separate New England From the 
Other States, and the Campaign Against Phila- 
delphia AND THE Middle States 

These two campaigns were carried on at the same time. 
They extended over two years and ended in failure. They 
began in July, 177G, when a British army of 25,000 men 
under General Howe and a large British fleet under his 
brother. Admiral Howe, arrived at Staten Island from 
Halifax. They ended in June, 1778, when the British 
evacuated Philadelphia and concentrated all their northern 
forces in New York City. New York City was captured 
by the British in August, 1776, and was used as the basis 
of operations for both these campaigns, and also for the 
southern campaign. It was the last city evacuated by the 
British at the end of the war. As a result of three months' 
fighting, Howe had captured New York City and had 



148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

slowly driven Washington a short distance up the Hudson, 
but the American army was about as large and as well 
prepared for battle as when the fighting began, although 
it was much smaller than the British army under Howe. 
In a short time, however, the meddling of Congress and 
the treachery of Lee compelled Washington with but a 
small part of his force to make a hurried retreat across 
New Jersey into Pennsylvania. Then in this darkest hour 
of the war came the capture of Trenton and his brilliant 
work which compelled the British to withdraw from nearly 
all New Jersey. As a result of four months' fighting the 
British held New York City and a few outlying posts. The 
attempt of General Carleton to march down the Hudson 
from Canada, join Howe at New York City and thus 
separate New England from the middle states, was a com- 
plete failure. 

In the spring of 1777 the British renewed their cam- 
paigns for the capture of Philadelphia and for the separa- 
tion of New England from the other states. Burgoyne 
with an army of 8,000 men was to capture the Fortress of 
Ticonderoga and march down the Hudson. St. Leger 
with a force of about 2,000 men was to capture Oswego 
on the east shore of Lake Ontario and march across New 
York to the Hudson and join Burgoyne. Plowe with some 
18,000 men was to move up the Hudson and meet Bur- 
goyne. Before doing this he decided to capture Philadel- 
phia. This proved to be a mistake. He succeeded in 
capturing Philadelphia, but the excellent generalship of 
Washington compelled him to consume about four months 
in doing this and it was then too late to assist Burgoyne. 
On October 17 — a few days after Howe entered Philadel- 
phia — Burgoyne was forced to surrender at Saratoga on 
the upper Hudson. The capture of Philadelphia was of 
but little value to the British, for they were able to hold 
only as much territory as was actually occupied by their 
troops, while the surrender of Burgoyne was a great injury. 
As a result of this surrender, France soon made an alliance 
with America. This compelled the British to evacuate 



Campaigns 149 

Philadelphia in the spring of 1778. On its march from 
Philadelphia to New York City the British army was 
attacked by Washington at Monmouth, and had it not 
been for the treachery of Lee, this battle would have re- 
sulted in a serious disaster to the English. The British 
now concentrated all their northern forces in New York 
City. Thus the two northern campaigns of the British 
ended in failure. In the fall of 1778 the British began 
their southern campaign, which was the third and last one 
and which was also to end in failure. 

After the battle of Monmouth the British made no fur- 
ther real attempt to carry on the war in the North, but 
confined their operations to sending out marauding expedi- 
tions and to stirring up the Indians on the frontiers. The 
more important events in the North during the remainder 
of the war were the storming of Stony Point by the Amer- 
icans, the treason of Arnold, and the total defeat of the 
Indians by Clark and Sullivan. The brilliant work of 
Paul Jones and of the American privateers is also worthy 
of special notice during this latter period of the war. 

II Campaign Against the Southern Colonies 

From an English standpoint this campaign was, for a 
time, successful. Savannah was captured, and Georgia 
and part of South Carolina were overrun. Several Amer- 
ican armies were utterly destroyed. But when the ineffi- 
cient Gates was superseded by Greene, the tide turned in 
favor of the Americans. At King's IMountain and at the 
Cowpens small British forces were entirely destroyed. The 
indecisive battle of Guilford Courthouse so weakened the 
British army that Cornwallis, with Greene in pursuit, re- 
treated to Wilmington, North Carolina. With the excep- 
tion of Charleston and Savannah, Greene soon forced the 
British to evacuate all of South Carolina and Georgia. 
Meanwhile Cornwallis marched north and fortified York- 
town. Here he was attacked by the combined French and 
American forces and compelled to surrender, October 19, 
1781. Cornwallis's surrender practically ended the war. 



150 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

Results of the War 

As the news of the surrender of Yorktown spread through 
the states, the people gave themselves over to general rejoicing. 
There were bonfires in almost every village, for the people 
knew that the surrender of Cornwallis, following, as it did, 
Greene's great campaign in the south, ended the war. When 
the news reached Paris, flags were flung to the breeze, nearly 
all the houses were illuminated, and the French, like the Ameri- 
cans, gave themselves up to general rejoicing. When Lord 
North heard the news he walked the floor of his room in great 
excitement exclaiming, "My God, it is all over !" When 
Charles Fox, one of the leaders of the House of Commons, 
heard it, he sprang from his chair with a shout of joy. Many 
of the leading statesmen of England were equally as glad as 
Fox that Cornwallis had been captured. Lord North, who had 
been prime minister since 1770, was soon forced by the House 
of Commons to resign and the king was forced to appoint in 
his place the leader of the Whig party that had always been 
friendly to the Americans and opposed to the war. The fall of 
Lord North marked the end of the king's personal rule in Eng- 
land. Never since then has a king of England attempted to 
rule. The people, through the House of Commons, have con- 
trolled the government and made the laws and the king has 
simply reigned. The surrender at Yorktown, therefore, was a 
glorious victory for Englishmen as well as for x\mericans. The 
Americans had fought to uphold the liberties of Englishmen, 
just as their ancestors in England had often done in the years 
gone by. On September 3rd, 1783, a treaty of peace was 
signed at Paris, which ended the war between England on one 
side, and France, Spain and the L^nited States on the other. 
The new nation secured the territory extending from the At- 
lantic to the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to Florida; 
England secured the right to navigate the Mississippi, and the 
Americans obtained the right to fish on the Newfoundland 
Banks ; the republican spirit received a remarkable stimulus 
throughout the world. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

CAUSES AND BEGINNINGS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the American Revokition, 
each pupil should read the second number of Hart's "Source 
Readers in American History," pp. 153-309. See "Explanatory and 
Suggestive," page ix.) What was King George's attitude toward 
popular government? Explain fully why he desired to secure 
control of Parliament. How did he succeed in doing this? Explain 
quite fully why Parliament wished to tax the colonists. Was it 
the duty of the colonies to help pay the cost of the French and 
Indian Wars, and to help support the British soldiers in America? 
Why did the colonists object to paying the taxes levied by Par- 
liament? Why was King George anxious to take up this quarrel 
with the Americans? Discuss the Navigation Acts, explaining 
quite fully why they were passed. Why did the colonists not 
seriously object to these laws? Why were general search war- 
rants, called Writs of Assistance, issued in connection with these 
laws? Explain why the Americans objected to these Writs. What 
effect did the issuing of these Writs have on the people? Explain 
how the Stamp Act violated the right of taxation. How was this 
Act regarded by the Americans? Describe the action of Virginia 
against this Act. What action was taken by the other colonies? 
Discuss the Stamp Act Congress, mentioning its origin, com- 
position, and work. Describe how the people treated the stamp 
distributors and the stamped paper. Why did the Stamp Act never 
go into effect? Why did the English merchants have it repealed? 
What was the Declaratory Act and why was it passed? Describe 
the Townshend Acts. How were they received by the Americans? 
Why were all the taxes levied by them repealed except the tax 
on tea? Why was the tax on tea retained? Explain quite fully how 
the tea imported under this tax was received by the Americans. 
Discuss the work of Samuel Adams in relation to the "Boston Tea 
Party." Discuss the "Boston Massacre." What led to the passage 
of the Repressive or Intolerable Acts? Describe each of these 
acts. What effect did they have on the Americans? 

Explain carefully and fully how the Stamp Act, The Townshend 
Acts, and the attempt of the English government to send Ameri- 
cans to England for trial led to union of action on the part of the 
colonies. Explain carefully what led to the appointment of the 
first permanent Committee of Correspondence. Explain fully what 



152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

led to the calling of the First Continental Congress. Discuss 
carefully the work of this Congress. What led the Americans to 
make active preparations for war? Describe these preparations. 
Describe the work of Samuel Adams in connection with these 
preparations. Who were the minute men? Describe the battles 
of Lexington and Concord. What was the effect of these battles 
on the Americans? (Each pupil should draw a map showing 
the direction of Lexington and Concord from Boston, and the 
British line of march.) Discuss the work of the Second Conti- 
nental Congress. Describe the battle of Bunker Hill. Describe the 
siege and capture of Boston by Washington. (Each pupil should 
draw a map of the neighborhood of Boston, showing the position 
of the English and the American troops during the siege of Boston 
and in the battle of Bunker Hill.) Describe the capture of Forts 
Ticonderoga and Crown Point. 

Discuss the petition sent to the king by the Second Continental 
Congress in July, 1775, and also the resolutions passed by that 
Congress at the time. What do this petition and these resolutions 
show as to the feeling of the Americans toward England? What 
were Washington's attitude and feeling on the question of inde- 
pendence when he first took command of the army? What effect 
did the petition of the Congress have upon King George? How 
did this afTect the question of independence? When and why were 
state governments formed? How did the formation of these gov- 
ernments aid in the growth of the desire for independence? What 
effect did the patriotic writings of Thomas Paine have on 
the people? Why did King George hire foreign soldiers to 
figlit in America? How was this regarded in Europe and in 
America? Describe the passage of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. What was the nature of the Declaration? How was it 
received by the Americans? How was the opinion in England 
divided regarding this war? What was the attitude of the other 
nations of Europe toward England? Were the Americans united 
in favor of the war? How did the United States compare with 
England in wealth? What was the source of its greatest weakness? 
In what respects had the United States the advantage of England 
in this war? 

CAMPAIGNS 

In what way did the battles of Lexington and Concord and the 
siege of Boston influence the British plans of campaigns? De- 
scribe carefully the scope and purpose of the three general cam- 
paigns adopted by the British after the siege of Boston. 

Describe the capture of New York by the British. (Each pupil 
should draw a map illustrating the battles around New York City.) 
Explain how the disobedience of Lee after the surrender of Fort 



Questions and Toffies 153 

Washington injured the American cause. In what way was Lee 
captured bj' the English? Describe the retreat of Washington 
through New Jersey. Describe the capture of Trenton by Wash- 
ington. Explain how Washington soon after the capture of 
Trenton succeeded in compelling the British to give up nearly all 
of New Jersey. (Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the 
work of Washington from the time he began his retreat across 
New Jersey until he went into winter quarters at INIorristown.) 
Describe the invasion of Canada by Montgomery and Arnold. 

What two campaigns did the British renew in the spring of 
1777? Describe the campaign which resulted in the capture of 
Philadelphia by the British. (Each pupil should draw a map fully 
illustrating the campaign which resulted in the capture of Phila- 
delphia, and also the battles which followed immediately after its 
capture.) In what way did Washington's work in this campaign 
assist in the capture of Burgoyne and his army? Describe fully 
the conditions and battles which led to the surrender of Burgoyne. 
(Each pupil should draw a map illustrating the campaign which 
resulted in the surrender of Burgoyne.) What effect did Bur- 
goyne's surrender have on the English government? What efifect 
did it have on the Americans? How did it assist in bringing 
about an alliance between France and America? How did the 
results of this alliance in Europe assist the Americans? How did 
this alliance affect the policy of the English government toward 
America? Why would not the Americans accept the liberal terms 
offered by the English government? Describe the condition of the 
American Army at Valley Forge. Why did the British leave 
Philadelphia in June, 1778? Describe the battle of Monmouth. 
Describe the storming of Stony Point. Discuss the treason of 
Arnold. After the battle of Monmouth why did the English army 
give up all the country in the middle and New England states 
except the city of New York and the country close around that 
city? What did the British hope to gain by stirring up the Indians 
on the frontiers of Pennsylvania and New York? Describe how 
Clark and Sullivan completely defeated the Indians. Tell what 
you can about Paul Jones. 

Describe the attempt of the English to capture Charleston in 
1776. Why did the British not renew the campaign against the 
South until after 1778, when their two northern campaigns had 
practically failed? Describe the southern campaign from the cap- 
ture of Savannah in the latter part of 1778 to the capture of 
Charleston in 1780. Describe the work of the Americans under 
such southern leaders as Marion, Sumter, Pickens, and Williams. 
Describe the campaign of Gates that resulted in his defeat at 
Camden. Give a full discussion of Greene's southern campaign. 



154 'HIE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 

What was the importance of this campaign? (Each pupil should 
draw a map illustrating these southern campaigns.) 

Give a full description of the campaign which led to the sur- 
render of Cornwallis. How was the news of this surrender received 
in America, France, and England? What efifect did it have on 
the war? When and where was the treaty of peace signed that 
ended the Revolution? What territory did this treaty give to 
the United States? Why was the success of the y\mericans in 
this war a great victory for Englishmen as well as for Americans? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the causes of the American Revolution. Discuss the 
first period of the Revolution. (This period ended with the evacu- 
ation of Boston by the English.) Discuss the principles for which 
the Americans were fighting during this first period. Discuss the 
campaign against Philadelphia. Discuss the campaign which had 
for its object the separation of New England from the middle 
states. Discuss the campaign against the southern states. Discuss 
the events which led to the surrender of Cornwallis. Discuss 
the eflfect of the Revolution on political liberty in America and 
in Europe. 

Subjects for Special Study and General Review 

(A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute 
the review for the seventh-grade work in history and civics. The 
pupils should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and 
should be permitted free access to available material when prepar- 
ing these papers for written discussions.) Give a written discussion 
of Conditions Favorable to the Discovery of America. Give a 
written discussion of Early Discoveries and Explorations in North 
America. Give a written discussion of The American Indian. 
Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth ,and Political 
History of the Southern Colonies. Give a written discussion of 
the Origin, Growth, and Political History of the New England 
Colonies. Give a written discussion of the Origin, Growth, and 
Political History of the Middle Colonies. Give a written discussion 
of the French in North America down to and including the French 
and Indian War. Give a written discussion of Industrial Con- 
ditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Social Con- 
ditions in the Colonies. Give a written discussion of Government 
in the Colonies and its Relation to Government today. Give a 
written discussion of Religion in the Colonics. Give a written 
discussion of Education in the Colonies. Give a written discussion 
of the Origin of American Institutions. Give a written discussion 
of the American Revolution, including its Causes and Results. 



EIGHTH-YEAR GRADE 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

I The Nature of the National Government 

D. 2G7-277; Mc. 128-129, 155-159, 163; Ma. 198- 
199; G. 194; T. 131-132, 154-155, 1G8-170; M. 
159, 1G2, 189 

II The Northwest Territory; The Ordinance oe 

1787 

D. 277-279; Mc. 1G0-1G2 ; Ma. 203-20G ; G. 197- 
198; T. 182-183; M. 190-191 

III Conditions oe Money and Business 

D. 279-280; H. II. 218-220; ^Ic. 1G3-165, 198-200; 
Ma. 199; G. 195-19G; T. 154-158; M. 173-174, 
189-190 

IV Anarchy and Rebellion 

D. 281; Mc. 1G4; Ma. 200-202; G. 19G-197; 
T. 170-171 ; M. 190 

V The Constitutional Convention 

1. Brents Leading to tJie Convention 

D. 281-283; Mc. 1G5; Ma. 202-203, 20G ; G. 
198, 200; T. 170-171 

2. Organi::ation of tJie Convention: Character of 

Members 
D. 283-285; Mc. 166; Ma. 207; G. 200-201; 
T. 172-173; M. 192 

3. Making the Constitution — Tlie Three Great 

Compromises 
D. 285-288; Mc. 167; Ma. 207-211; T. 173- 
174; M. 192, Note 3 



158 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

Vl TiiK Constitution 

1. Legislative Department 

D. 288-289; I\Ic. 1G9, 197; T. 177-i:8 

2. Executive Department 

D. 289-290; ^Ic. 1G8, 198; T. 178-179 

3. Judicial Department 

D. 290-294; Mc. 1G9, 197; T. 179 

4. Ratification 

D. 294-296; Mc. 109-170; Ma. 211-213; T. 
174-176; M. 193 

\'II Organization of the New Government 

D. 296; Mc. 170-173; Ala. 221-223; T. 181-182 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

I The; Nature of the National Government 

Although the Treaty of Paris ended the war, the condi- 
tions in the colonies from the standpoint of both business 
and government continued very serious indeed until the 
ratification of the Constitution in 1788. In many ways the 
years between 1783 and 1789 were the most dangerous 
and important in the history of the United States. The 
period covered by these years has been aptly and fittingly 
called by Fiske "The Critical Period of American His- 
tory." The bad condition of affairs during this period was 
due mainly to the fact that there was no strong central 
government in the United States. From the beginning of 
the Revolution until 1781, the Continental Congress direct- 
ed and attended to the general affairs of the states. There 
was no other form of national government. This Congress 
had no legal standing. It was not created by any consti- 
tution or law, and .hence its powers and duties were not 
defined in any way. It tried to do those things which 
were necessary to carry on the war with success, but as 
it had no power to enforce its acts or laws, its efforts were 
not always successful, and as a result Washington's plans 
were often injured. It could not raise soldiers, levy taxes, 
or regulate commerce — three powers that a national gov- 
ernment must have if it wishes to live and have its laws 
obeyed. All Congress could do was to ask the states to do 
certain things. It could not do them itself, neither could 
it compel the states to do them. Sometimes a state granted 
the request of Congress, and sometimes it did not. In 
1781 — about two years before the war closed — a sort of 
written constitution went into effect. This constitution is 
known as the Articles of Confederation. It was prepared 
by Congress and submitted to the states in 1777, but not 
ratified by all the states and put into effect until 1781, 
This constitution simply put into written form and legal- 



160 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

izcd the powers which Congress had already assumed and 
enjoyed. Congress was still the national or general gov- 
ernment for all the states, and it had no more powers than 
it had before this written constitution or agreement had 
been adopted by the states. In some ways it had less 
power. It could not even request the states for soldiers 
or money unless a majorit}' of the delegates from each of 
nine states voted in favor of making such request, whereas 
before, Congress could pass any measure if but seven 
states voted for it. This was indeed a weak form of gov- 
ernment and naturally did not secure the respect of the 
American people or of foreign governments. Even when 
the war was going on, the states often did not grant the 
requests of Congress, and after the actual pressure of war 
had been removed, each state did about as it pleased. 
Congress had no power to carry out its treaties and agree- 
ments with foreign governments, and as a result these 
governments, between 1783 and 1780, came to have less 
and less respect for the United States. The American 
people were to blame for this weak and inefficient national 
government. They were afraid that a strong central gov- 
ernment would try to take away their rights as the govern- 
ment of England had tried to do. It required five hard 
and dangerous years after the end of the war to convince 
them that a strong central government was necessary to 
their happiness and to the welfare of the new nation. 

II Tiiiv Northwest Territory ; Tite Orpinance oe 1787 

The most important law enacted by Congress under the 
Articles of Confederation was that known as the Ordinance 
of 1787. This law provided for the organization and 
government of what was then called the Northwest Ter- 
ritory, This territory included what is now the states of 
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois. Michigan and Wisconsin. During 
the greater part of the Revolution it was claimed by Vir- 
ginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut and New York, but 
Maryland refused to ratify the Articles of Confederation 
until these states agreed to cede it to Congress, thus mak- 



Conditions of Money and Business 101 

ing it the common property of all the states. By 1786 the 
states had given vip their individual claims and this vast 
territory came under the direct control of Congress. The 
Ordinance of 1787 providing for the government of this 
territory is very important, as it has been the basis of the 
government of all new territory since acquired by the 
United States, except that acquired in the recent war with 
Spain. The more important provisions of the ordinance 
were those providing for the forming of new states out of 
this territory, and forever forbidding the existence of 
slavery in the Northwest Territory. A very important 
result of the cession of the Northwest Territory to Con- 
gress was that it tended to keep the states from separating 
during the critical period of our history. 

Til Conditions of Mone;y and Business 

The lack of good money in the United States during the 
Critical Period, and the bad condition of business caused 
great distress. No gold or silver money was made by the 
United States until 1793, and all the hard money used was 
the coin of other nations. After the Revolution nearly all 
of the hard money in the United States was paid out for 
imported goods which were much needed by the Americans 
and which were sent over in great quantities from England. 
During the Revolution Congress issued large sums of 
paper' money to carry on the war, but as it soon became 
plain that Congress could never redeem this money, it very 
quickly became almost worthless. During the Critical 
Period there was a strong desire for paper money, which 
was issued by some of the states, and which, like the Conti- 
nental Currency issued by Congress, soon became worth- 
less. This worthless paper money and the lack of hard 
money caused conditions to become worse and worse. The 
people could not pay their taxes, and Congress had to 
borrow money for the running expenses of the govern- 
ment. Congress could not compel the states to comply 
with its request for money, and the credit of the United 
States became very poor among foreign nations. These 
u 



162 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

bad conditions showed tlie need of a strong^cr central 
i^overnment, and this need was brought home more sliarply 
to the people by the disputes among the states regarding 
the levying of import duties on one another's products, 
and conllicting land claims. 

IV Anarch V and Rebellion 

The disputes of the states over territory led to the rais- 
ing of troops by some of the state's, and while all these 
disputes were finally settled without actual warfare, they 
indicated plainly that war between the states might break 
out at any time. The refusal of ]^Iassachusetts to issue 
paper money led to the breaking out of an open insurrec- 
tion — known as Shay's Rebellion — against the state au- 
thority. Some 2,000 men took up arms, and it required 
more than 4,000 state troops to put down the insurrection. 
Such conditions alarmed all thinking people, and made 
them ready to sanction a central government that would 
be strong enough to protect life and property in all the 
states, and that would give peace and prosperity to the 
nation. 

V The Constitutional Convention 

1. Events Leading to the Convention 

The desirability of opening up and settling the coun- 
try west of the Alleghanies led to a meeting of delegates 
from Maryland and Virginia at Washington's home in 
1785 to discuss plans for improving navigation on the 
upper part of the Potomac river and for building roads 
in the new western country. During this meeting, which 
was held at Washington's suggestion, Washington sug- 
gested that Maryland and Virginia h(^ld a joint conven- 
tion for discussing further the building of roads and can- 
als, and for discussing uniformity of trade laws. Later 
it was decided to invite delegates from all the states 
to attend this convention, but when the meeting assem- 
bled at Annapolis in September. ITS-"), it was found that 
onlv five of the states were represented. The delegates, 



The Constitutional Contention ICH 

therefore, did not attempt to settle any of these ques- 
tions, but passed a resohition suggesting to all the states 
that they send delegates to a convention to be held at 
Philadelphia in May of the following year. Congress 
recommended to the states that they appoint such dele- 
gates, and all the states did so except Rhode Island. 

2. Organisation of the Convention: Character of Members 

The Constitutional Convention is distinctly American, 
and the one that framed our National Constitution is 
by far the most important one ever held in America. It 
was composed of fifty-five members and represented all 
the states except Rhode Island. In almost every case 
the states sent their ablest men, and it is no doubt true 
that never before or since have so many able men come 
together for the purpose of discussing government. 
Washington, Franklin and Madison were the chief men 
in the convention, but others were of only a little less 
importance. Although their work was to be very im- 
portant, but few of the members had a definite idea of 
what they were to do, because the resolution which 
called the Convention simply stated in a general way 
that it was called for the purpose of providing a better 
central government for the United States. Washington 
was elected president of the Convention, and it sat with 
closed doors, everything being kept secret until its work 
was complete. 

3. Making the Constitution — TJie Three Great Com- 
promises 

Some of the niembers of the Convention were afraid 
that the people would not ratify a constitution that pro- 
vided for a strong central government, and they there- 
fore suggested that the work of the Convention be re- 
stricted to revising the Articles of Confederation. It 
was soon decided by the advice of Washington and other 
leaders, to make a new constitution instead of trying 
to patch up the old one. Several plans for the new 



164 THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

constitution were submitted to the convention by dele- 
gates from the various states. The \'irginia plan, 
among other things, provided for a national legislature 
of two houses, the members of the lower house to be 
elected by the states according to their population or 
wealth, and those of the upper house to be elected by 
the members of the lower. This plan would give the 
large states much more power than the small states. 
The New Jersey plan proposed that the national legis- 
lature should consist of one house in which all the states 
should have the same number of representatives. This 
would give the small states an advantage and the gov- 
ernment would be simply a league of states as before. 
The matter was finally settled by a compromise, but not 
until the discussion had nearly broken up the Conven- 
tion. It was agreed that the national legislature should 
consist of two houses. The lower house, called the 
House of Representatives, was to be composed of mem- 
bers elected directly by the people, and the number of 
members from each state was to be determined by the 
number of people in that state. The upper house, called 
the Senate, was to be composed of two members from 
each state, and they were to be elected by the state 
legislatures. This was the first great compromise of the 
Convention. The next compromise was between the 
northern and southern states over the question as to 
whether the slaves should be counted as population 
when apportioning representatives to a state. The 
southern men wished to have all the slaves counted, 
while the northern members did not want any of the 
slaves counted as population. It was compromised by 
agreeing to allow five slaves to count as three white 
people when estimating population and national taxes. 
The third great compromise was over the question of 
commerce and the importation of slaves. All the south- 
ern states were opposed to giving the new government 
complete control of commerce. South Carolina and 
Georgia wanted the right to continue the importation 



The Constitittion 165 

of slaves, but nearly all the other states were opposetl to 
this. Finally it was agreed that Congress should have 
complete control of commerce and that slaves might be 
imported until 1S08. 

VI Thi; Constitution 

1. Legislative Department 

The new Constitution provided for a national legis- 
lature, called the Congress of the United States, com- 
posed of two houses — a lower house, called the House 
of Representatives, and an upper house, called the Sen- 
ate. The members of the lower house are elected by the 
people for a term of two years. The national govern- 
ment therefore acts upon each individual citizen, while 
the government under the Articles of Confederation 
acted upon the states. This is a most important differ- 
ence, as it makes our present central government, a 
national government, while under the Articles of Con- 
federation the government was simply a confederation 
of states. The members of the Senate are elected by the 
state legislatures for a term of six years. They repre- 
sent the states and not the people directly. All the 
powers not granted to the national government by the 
Constitution or prohibited to the states by it, still belong 
to the states, or the people. The Constitution, however, 
gave the new government all the power necessary for a 
strong national government. 

2. Executive Department 

The Constitution created a strong executive depart- 
ment. The head of this department is called the Pres- 
ident of the United States. He is Commander-in-Chief 
of the army and navy of the United States, and in 
addition to other important duties, he must defend the 
Constitution and execute the laws passed by Congress. 
There is also a vice-president elected at the same time 
and in the same manner as the President. In order 



166 THE CRITICAL I'RRIOD 

to assist the President, Congress has, from time to 
time, created a number of executive departments, whose 
secretaries constitute the President's Cabinet, and are 
consulted by him on important matters. In addition to 
his executive duties the President takes an important 
part in legislation, since he may veto any bill passed by 
Congress, and such bill cannot then become a law 
unless it is passed in each house of Congress by a 
two-thirds vote. 

3. Judicial Department 

The Constitution created a judicial department which 
was to consist of a Supreme Court of the United States, 
and of such inferior courts as Congress might see fit 
to establish. By the wise legislation of Congress the 
judicial department has become of great importance 
in our government. In addition to the Supreme Court, 
which is at the head of the department, a number of 
lower courts have been created by Congress. All tlie 
judges of all these courts are appointed by the President, 
but each appointment must be confirmed by the Sen- 
ate. It is the duty of these courts to interpret and 
apply the laws that relate to the national government. 
The Constitution, the laws passed by Congress, and 
the treaties of the United States are interpreted by 
the regular United States courts. Cases may be tried 
first in the District Courts, then appealed in succession 
to the Circuit Courts, Circuit Court of Appeals, and 
to the Supreme Court. In all cases the decision of the 
Supreme Court is final. The Supreme Court may 
declare an act of the President's, or a law passed by 
Congress unconstitutional and therefore null and void. 
Thus the Supreme Court is at the very head of the 
national government. No other judicial body in the 
world has such power, and in establishing such a body 
the Constitutional Convention created a new principle 
of government. 



Organization of the New Government 167 

4. Ratification 

When the Constitution was given to the states for 
ratification the people soon became divided into two 
parties, and there began one of the ablest and most 
remarkable campaigns in the history of America. Alan}' 
feared that the central government provided was too 
strong and might become unjust and overthrow the 
rights of the people. Those favoring the ratification 
of the Constitution were called Federalists, and those 
opposed, Anti-Federalists. Hamilton and Madison were 
the leaders of those who favored the Constitution, and 
they did a magnificent work in urging its adoption. 
The Constitution provided that it should go into effect 
as soon as ratified by nine states. The nine states neces- 
sary had ratified the Constitution by March, 1788, and 
the others soon followed. 

VII Organization of thi; New Gove;rnmi;nt 

By the ratification of the new Constitution, the gov- 
ernment created by the Articles of Confederation came 
to an end. The first presidential election under the 
Constitution occurred in January, 1789. Washington 
received every vote, and thus became the first President 
of the United States. John Adams received the next 
largest number and became vice-president. Congress 
at once proceeded to organize the different depart- 
ments of government in accordance with the Consti- 
tution. It passed laws organizing the judicial depart- 
ment, and establishing four cabinet departments. Thus 
came to an end the Critical Period of American History, 
and thus went into effect the present Constitution of 
the United States. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

THE CRITICAL PERIOD 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Why may the time between 1783 and 1789 be called "The 
Critical Period of American History?" Describe the nature of the 
national government during the Revolution until the adoption of 
the Articles of Confederation in 1781. Describe the nature of the 
national government provided for by the Articles of Confedera- 
tion. In what way did the Articles of Confederation assist to bring 
about the bad condition of affairs that existed during the Critical 
Period? During this period why were the people opposed to 
creating a strong central government? 

To what territory did the Ordinance of 1787 apply? Describe 
in full the government provided for by this ordinance. Discuss 
the importance of this ordinance with regard to slavery and the 
government of the territories of the United States. Describe fully 
the conditions of money and business during the Critical Period. 
What brought about these conditions? Give a careful discussion 
of the more important results of these conditions. Describe fully 
what is meant by "Anarchy and Rebellion" during the Critical 
Period. How did this threaten the life of the nation? How did 
these disturbances assist in preparing the way for the adoption of 
a strong central government? 

Describe fully the events leading to the Constitutional Conven- 
tion. Tell what you can about the men that composed the con- 
vention. How was the convention organized. Did the convention 
exceed the purpose for which it was called? Describe fully each 
of the three great compromises of the convention. (In studying 
the national government in accordance with the questions which 
follow, the pupil should make constant use of the Constitution.) 
For how many departments of government did the new Constitu- 
tion provide? Compare this plan of government with that which 
existed during colonial times and also with that which exists in 
the states at the present time. Describe in a general way the 
legislative department created by the Constitution. What powers 
and duties belong to the House of Representatives that do not 
belong to the Senate? What are the reasons for this? What 
powers and duties belong to the Senate that do not belong to 
the House of Representatives? What are the reasons for this? 
Describe the general powers and duties of Congress. How are 
senators and representatives elected? What is the reason for 



Questions and Topics 169 

having a senator's term of office longer than that of a representa- 
tive? Describe in a general way the executive department created 
by the Constitution. How are the President and Vice-President 
of the United States elected, and for how long a term? Describe 
in full the President's Cabinet and its general powers and duties. 
Describe fully the general powers and duties of the President. 
What power has the President in legislation? What are the duties 
of the Vice-President? Describe in a general way the judicial 
department created by the Constitution. Describe briefly the 
different classes of United States courts. Discuss the general 
powers and duties of the judicial department. Compare with 
regard to its power the Supreme Court of the United States with 
the supreme courts of other nations. 

W^hen the Constitution was submitted to the people for their 
approval, why were many opposed to its ratification? Explain fully 
what is meant bj' Federalist and Anti-Federalist during the cam- 
paign for the ratification of the Constitution. Who were some 
of the leading Federalists and Anti-Federalists? Who wrote "The 
Federalist," and what was its effect on the campaign for the 
ratification of the Constitution? Discuss briefly the campaign 
which resulted in the ratification of the Constitution. Discuss the 
organization of the new government. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the national government during the Critical 
Period. Discuss the conditions of the country during the Critical 
Period. Discuss the Ordinance of 1787. Discuss the events which 
led to the Constitutional Convention. Explain fully the three 
great compromises. Discuss the national government provided for 
by the Constitution. Discuss the ratification of the Constitution. 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN 
INTERFERENCE 

A THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

(In connection with the study of period of European inter- 
ference, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's 
Source Readers, pp. 217-315.) 

I Origin of American Neutrality in European 

Affairs, 1793 

D. 302-307; Mc. 20()-207 ; Ma. 227-228; G. 217- 
219; T. 189-190; M. 198-199 

II The Jay Treaty, 1795 

D. 307-309; Mc. 207-209; Ma. 229-230; G. 219; 
T. 190-191; M. 202-204 

III Breach with France, 1799-1800 

D. 309-311; Mc. 210-214; Ma. 230-232; G. 220- 
221; T. 194-197; M. 204 

IV The Alien and Sedition Acts, 1798 

D. 311-313; Mc. 211-212; Ma. 232; G. 221-222; 
T. 195; M. 205 

V The X^irc.tnia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798- 

1799 

D. 313; Mc. 212-213; Ma. 232-235; G. 222- 
225; T. 195-196; M. 205 

VI The Purchase of Louisiana, 1803 

D. 314-316; Mc. 218; Ma. 237-238; G. 229-232; 
T. 201-204; M. 208-209 

VII European Interference with American Com- 

merce, 1800-1812 
1. Decrees and Orders in Council, 1806-1810 

D. 316-319; Mc. 224-227; Ma. 241-243; G. 
237-239; T. 210-211; M. 211 



The Period of Enro['can Interference 171 

2. Jefferson's Bmhargo Policy, iSoy-iSog 

D. 319-320; Mc. 226-228, 250; Ma. 244; G. 
239-241; T. 211-212; M. 211-212 

VIII The; War o^ 1812, or the War for Commercial 

Independence, 1812-1814 

1. Causes 

D. 320; H. III. 228-231; Mc. 231; Ma. 
244-247; G. 242-244; T. 215; M. 215-217 

2. llie War on Land 

D. 321-327; H. III. 274-312; Mc. 233, 235, 
238; Ma. 247-248; 251-255; G. 246, 247- 
248, 249-250 ; T. 216-233 ; M. 217-218, 222- 

224 

3. The War on the Sea 

D. 327; H. III. 223-255; Mc. 234-237; 
Ma. 248-252, 253; G. 244-246,246-247, 248; 
T. 217-220; M. 218-220, 222-223 

4. Results 

D. 328; Ma. 255-256; G. 252 

(a) Treaty of Peace, 1814 

(b) Commercial and Industrial Results 

(c) Effect on the Nation 

IX The Hartford Convention. 1814 

D. 328; Ma. 256; G. 251; T. 224-225; M. 224 

X Purchase of Florida, 1819 

D. 329; Mc. 260-262; Ma. 258-259; T. 230-231; 
M. 227 



172 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

XI Till-; IMoNKoii; Doctrini-:, 1833 

D. 330-332; Mc. 2()2-26o ; Ma. 2G7-2G8 ; G. 251- 
256; T. 238-240; M. 232-233 

B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I Hamilton's Financial Measures, 1790-1791 

D. 332-337; Mc. 198-202; Ma. 223-226; G. 211- 
213, 214; T. 184-186; M. 197-198 

1. Tariff Duties 

2. Excise 

3. I'unding of ' National Debt 

4. Assumption of State Debts 

5. Establishment of the United States Dank 

II Jkj'i'krson and Gallatin's Financial Policy, 

1801-1809 

D. 337; Mc. 216-218; Ma. 236 

ill TiiK National Bank and State Banks 

D. 338; Mc. 255-257; Ma. 224, 256; T. 226-227 

IV Tariee Legislation 

1. The First Tariff Act, 1789 

D. 338; Mc. 197; Ma. 223; T. 184; M. 
197, 246n 

2. Grozi'th of the Idea of Protection 

D. 339; Mc. 303; Ma. 241, 257; T. 231, 
232, 240, 248; M. 245-246 

C POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Rise of Political Parties 

D. 340-342; Mc. 170, 202-203; Ma. 221, 224, 225- 
228, 230; G. 211, 220, 263; T. 174-175, 189; M. 
195 



Grozvth of the Nation 173 

II Fall of the Federalist Party 

D. 342; Mc. 211, 259; Ma. 232-235, 245; T. 
195, 198, 225, 228 

III The Republican Party 

D. 343-345; Mc. 215, 229, 259-260, 277, 297-301; 
Ma. 235-236, 256; G. 224-226; T. 198-201, 228- 
229, 241-242; M. 206 

D GROWTH OF THE NATION 

(In connection with the study of this subject, each pupil 
should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 
143-215.) 

I Growth in Territory and Porulation 

D. 345; Mc. 241, 244-246, 266-268; Ma. 237, 238- 
240, 258 ; G. 226, 229, 232, 254 ; T. 244 

II Movement of Population 

D. 345-347; Mc. 241-242; Ma. 214, 221; G. 229, 
232 

1. Cattscs 

2. Direction 

III Results of Westward Expansion 

1. Formation of States 

D. 347; Mc. 243-245; Ma. 257-259 

2. Internal Improvements 

D. 347; Mc. 251-252, 279-286; Ma. 216- 
218; 260-264; T. 209, 233-235, 245; M. 231- 
232, 235-236 

3. Strui::;glc Over Slavery: The Missouri Compro- 

mise, 1820 

D. 348-351; Mc. 274-276; Ma. 219, 259-260; 
T. 235-238; M. 227-231 

IV Growth of National Unity 

D. 351-353; Ma. 255 



174 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industriai, Conditions 

D. 353; Mc. ;!()I-:5();'. ; ALn. 215-216 

1. Manufactures 

D. 353-355; Mc. 219-250; Ma. 216 

2. Agriculture 

D. 355-356; Mc. 248-249; T. 244 

3. Commerce 

D. 357; Mc. 248-249; Ma. 215, 241, 257 

4. Transportation and Communication 

D. 357-360; H. III. 84-104; Mc. 252-253; Ma. 
216-218. 240, 260-264; G. 207, 228, 234, 
256, 259-263; T. 212, 233-235, 244 

II Social Conditions 

(In connection with the study of this subject each pupil 
should read the third number of Hart's Source Readers, 
pp. 1-142.) 

D. 361; H. III. 56-61, 126-138, 143-149; Ma. 
218-219 

III Government 

D. 362 

IV Religion 

D. 362 ; H. III. 53 ; Ma. 219 

V Education 

(In connection with this subject, each pupil should read 
the third number of Hart's Source Readers, pp. 317-371.) 

D. 363-364; Ma. 264-266 



NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN 
INTERFERENCE 

The history of the United States from the time the new 
government was organized in the spring of 1789 to the begin- 
ning of the Civil War in 1861, may be divided into two periods. 
The first period extends from 1789 to about 1828, and the 
second period from about this date to the Civil War. This 
division is based on strictly historical grounds, and is not 
made simply as a matter of convenience. The history of the 
United States during each of these periods was shaped and 
controlled by many forces and conditions, but there were cer- 
tain causes and conditions that had the main or controlling 
effect upon the history of each period. During the greater 
part of the first period, the interference of foreign nations 
in the affairs of the United States had a profound, important, 
and controlling effect on our history. A large part of the 
legislation of Congress related either directly or indirectly to 
this interference. This constant meddling in our affairs by 
Europe led finally to another war wuth England, which secured 
for the United States the proper respect and consideration of 
all the other nations. The main or controlling force in the 
history of the United States during the second period was the 
question of slavery in its relation to the westward growth of 
the nation in territory and population. During both periods 
the growth of the United States in territory, wealth and popu- 
lation was most rapid and important, but the main question in 
relation to this growth during the first period was European 
interference and the main question during the second period 
was slavery. During the first period, however, slavery was 
quietly becoming more and more firmly established in the 
South, but the pressure of foreign nations on the United States 
and the manner in which the western country was settled, kept 
this question fairly quiet. The opposition to Europe during 
the first period tended to unite the American people and to 
create in them a patriotism and love for the nation and the 
National government, and to break down the idea of state 



176 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

sovereignty that existed when the Constitution was adopted. 
Durinji- this first period, however, slavery was quietly causing 
the social and the industrial conditions of the North and 
v^outh to become more and more unHke, and during the second 
period this resulted in bitter discussions that ended in a dread- 
ful ci\il war. It therefore becomes plain that the controlling 
forces or conditions in the history of the L^nited States from 
1789 to about 1828 were European interference in our affairs 
and the rapid growth of the nation in territory and population, 
and that the controlling force or condition in our history from 
about 1828 to 18G1 was the slavery question in relation to this 
continued rapid growth of the nation in territory and popu- 
lation. Because of these controlling forces and conditions, the 
first period will be called, National Growth and European 
Interference, and the second period wdll be called, Westward 
Expansion and Slavery, 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

I Origin oi? American Neutrality in European Affairs, 
1793 
In 1793 war broke out between France and England. 
The people of the Ignited States were in favor of assisting 
France. To do this meant the destruction of American 
commerce, and war with the English and Indians along 
the frontier of the United States. It also meant that the 
United States would be involved in. European struggles 
which did not affect American affairs. The time had 
come when the United States must decide whether she 
would meddle in European affairs which did not concern 
her particularly and which must often involve a useless 
loss of life and property, or whether she would remain 
neutral, Washington foresaw the vast importance of this 
decision, and after mature deliberation announced in a 
proclamation that the j^olicy of the l''^nited States should 
be non-interference in I'.uropean affairs. This decision 
marked Washington as a statesman of the highest rank. 
The people all over the Ignited States, in mass meetings 
and through the press, were urging the government to 



The Period of European Interference 177 

assist France, but Washington held fast to his purpose, 
and was finally sustained by Congress. This action on 
Washington's part was made doubly hard by the presence 
in America of Genet, an agent of the French government, 
who roused great enthusiasm among the people, and swung 
public opinion to the side of the French. By the treaty 
made with France during the Revolution, the United 
States was under obligations to aid France in case of 
war with Great Britain. The United States, however, 
was not called upon by the French government to fulfill 
these obligations. The American government would have 
been placed in an awkward position had such a demand 
been made. Thus was born American Neutrality and 
the United States has ever since held steadfastly to this 
principle. The importance to the United States of this 
principle or unwritten law can hardly be overestimated. 
It has saved this nation from many a bloody and useless 
war, and has permitted it to develop its natural resources 
unmolested by European quarrels and conflicts. The 
United States under Washington established the unwrit- 
ten law that she should not interfere in the affairs of 
Europe which did not concern her, and thirty years later, 
under Monroe, she established the unwritten law that no 
European nation should interfere with strictly American 
affairs vmless directly concerned. 

TI The Jay Treaty, 1795 

Some important questions had been left unsettled b)' 
the treaty of 1783 at the close of the Revolution, and the 
war between France and England gave rise to other dif- 
ficulties, especially concerning American trade. The Eng- 
lish insisted on enforcing what is known as the "Rule of 
175G" which provided that a neutral could not enjoy in 
time of war a trade prohibited in time of peace. For in- 
stance : The Americans were not allowed to trade with 
the French West Indies in time of peace, but when the 
war broke out with England, the French were glad to 
open their West Indian ports to American commerce for 
the sake of obtaining supplies. By the Rule of 1750, 

12 



178 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

which Great Britain now put into force, this trade was 
forbidden to Americans, and thus their conimcrce was 
greatly injured. Another contention arose regarding the 
right of England to impress British sailors from American 
vessels into the I>ritish navy. England claimed the right 
to search American vessels anywhere on the seas for 
British sailors, and to forcibly remove them to British 
ships. In order to settle these various difficulties, Chief 
Justice Jay was sent by Washington to England to make 
a treaty. Some of the provisions of the treaty were not 
favorable to the United States and there was much ad- 
verse discussion before the treaty was finally ratified. 
While the treaty was not favorable to American interests 
it accomplished its purpose — the avoidance of war with 
England at that time. 

III Brkacii with France, 179()-17n9 

The Jay treaty gave to England valuable commercial 
rights. France was irritated by the Genet affair and the 
Neutrality Proclamation, and the Jay treaty, favorable 
as it was to England, still further exasperated her. The 
Genet affair had done much to turn American sympathy 
from France, and the insults to the American representa- 
tives in France — the X. Y. Z. afifair — roused the indigna- 
tion of the United States. For awhile diplomacy seemed 
unable to avert war between the two countries. In fact 
fighting actually began on the sea, but the uniform suc- 
cess of the American navy and a change of government 
in France caused her to re-open diplomatic relations and 
war was averted. 

IV Tniv Alien and Skdition Acts, 1708 

The firm stand taken by the Federalists in the trouble 
with France made Adams and the Federalists very popu- 
lar, but the passage by Congress of several laws, known 
as the Alien and Sedition Laws, brought them suddenly 
into great disfavor. The violent and abusive attacks on 
the administration and tlic Federalist leaders by the Re- 
publican papers, a large nuiuber of whose editors were 



TJic Period of European Interference 1^9 

foreigners, led to the passage of these laws. The first 
law against aliens raised the period of residence necessary 
for naturalization to fourteen years. The act known as 
the Alien Act gave the President power to deport from 
the United States any foreigners whom he considered 
dangerous to the country. The Sedition Act gave the 
President and the officers of the government the right to 
imprison and fine those who uttered or wrote anything 
of a seditious or treasonahle nature against the govern- 
ment, or even anything which tended to defame the gov- 
ernment or any of its officers. The Sedition Act was 
aimed at the press, and was the first and last attempt of 
the national government to interfere with its freedom. 

V The: Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 1798-1799 

The Alien and Sedition Laws were fiercely attacked by 
the Republicans led by Jefiferson and Madison. They felt 
that the Federalist party was using its power in the gov- 
ernment to destroy the rights of the people. This feeling 
took definite shape in the legislatures of Virginia and 
Kentucky, which passed resolutions on the subject. The 
Kentucky resolutions were drawn up by Jefferson and 
were quite radical. They stated that the Constitution was 
a compact between sovereign states, and that the laws 
passed by Congress which were judged unconstitutional 
by a state might be declared null and void by that state. 
The Virginia Resolutions were drawn up by Madison. 
They also called the Constitution a compact, and put forth 
nullification as the rightful remedy in case of the passage 
of laws in violation of the Constitution. Both of these 
series of resolutions are of great importance because they 
were the first definite expression of the doctrine of State 
Rights as opposed to National Sovereignty. 

VI The Purchase oe Louisiana, 1803 

The Mississippi river was the main outlet for the com- 
merce of all the American territory between the Alle- 
ghanies and the Mississippi, hence the possession of the 
mouth of the great river was a matter of great importance 



180 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

to the settlers of this re<^ion. So long as Spain held this, 
there was little to be feared by the Americans, for Spain 
was a weak nation, and by a treaty made in 17i)5 allowed 
the United States the right of deposit — that is, the right 
to land merchandise, or to transfer it from river boats and 
steamers to sea-going vessels — at New Orleans. In 1802 
Spain ceded the entire Louisiana territory, including the 
mouth of the Mississippi, to France. This was a just 
cause of alarm and protest for the Americans. Napoleon, 
who was master of France and very powerful in conti- 
nental Europe at that time, had plans for building up an 
American Empire, and seemed to be in a position to do 
so. The closing of the port of New Orleans to American 
trade at the time of the transfer of the territory from 
Spain to France brought forth such a protest from the 
western settlers that Jefferson sent a commission to France 
to try to buy the territory at the mouth of the river. 
Napoleon at first refused, l)ut the failure of an expedition 
to San Domingo, and the renewal of war with England 
led him to change his mind and he offered to sell not only 
the land at the mouth of the river, but the whole of the 
Louisiana territory to the United States. He was afraid 
that England might get possession of this territory, and, 
if France must lose it, he preferred that it should belong 
to the United States. The price paid for this vast domain 
was only $15,000,000. 

During the administrations of Washington and Adams, 
Jefferson had advocated a strict construction of the Con- 
stitution, but in the purchase of Louisiana he gave it a 
looser construction than the Federalists had ever dared 
to give. 

VTI EUROPKAN InTERFKRKNCK with AlMTRTCAN COMMKRCK, 

1800-1812 
1. Decrees ami Orders in Council, 1S06-1S10 

From 1803 to 1815, France and England were con- 
tinuously at war. Each nation tried to injure the other 
bv destroving its commerce. In order to do this the 



The Period of European Interference 181 

British by "Orders in Council" and Napoleon by "De- 
crees," would declare the ports of the other to be in a 
state of blockade, although they were unable to make 
such blockade effective by actually keeping war vessels 
at the ports declared blockaded. England and France 
both claimed the right to take as prizes all merchant 
vessels trading with the enemy in violation of the com- 
mercial regulations which each had issued. This pol- 
icy, if carried out, would have resulted in the destruc- 
tion of American commerce. The United States, how- 
ever, maintained that a neutral state had a right to 
trade freely with either of the nations at war, unless 
her ports were actually blockaded. From 1803 to 1809 
the dispute on this point between the United States and 
the two nations at war, England and France, was almost 
continuous ; and on several occasions it came very nearly 
involving the United States in war. In fact it would 
have done so had it not been for the weak attitude of 
Jefferson. 
2. Jefferson's Embargo Policy, i8o/-i8op 

Jefferson tried to injure first England and then 
France by having Congress pass what were known as 
the Non-importation and the Embargo Acts. The Non- 
Importation Act forbade the importation of goods from 
England. The Embargo was much more severe and 
forbade the sending of any goods from the United States 
to any foreign nation. As the Embargo bore more 
heavily on America than on any other nation, it was not 
a success, and was abandoned. A law forbidding com- 
merce with England or France but allowing it with 
other nations was passed in place of the Embargo Law, 
and was much better for American commerce. 

Mil TiiK War oi^ 1812, ok tiik War I'OR CommI'RCIal Inde- 
rENDENCE, 1812-1814 
1. Causes 

The causes of this war were primarily interference 
with American trade, and impressment of American 



182 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

seamen. The character of the United States Congress 
at this time had much to do with the immediate decla- 
ration of war. Very few of the statesmen who con- 
trolled affairs during- and for a quarter of a century 
after the Revolution were now members of the national 
legislature. Statesmen of a younger generation had 
come into power. They represented the young and ris- 
ing democracy of America, and especially of the West. 
They were full of hope and strength, believed in the fu- 
ture greatness of the United States, and were humiliated 
and annoyed by the continual insults offered this nation 
by France and England. From the very first they 
were determined to end this humiliation, even though 
compelled to resort to war. Both England and France 
were involved in offenses against American commerce 
and American seamen; but Great I'ritain was not only 
the greater offender in these respects, but had also of- 
fended in other ways, so war was declared against her. 
The arrogant bearing of the English leaders toward 
America was irritating to Americans, and the continual 
Indian troubles on the frontiers, which were due largely 
to English iniluence, also caused bitter feeling. 

2. The ITar on Land 

In this war the Americans were, as a rule, unsuc- 
cessful in their campaigns on land. The soUliers were 
untrained, and the t)fticers, frequently owing their ap- 
pointments to political reasons, were generally incom- 
petent. Neither nation, however, was successful in in- 
\ading the territory of the other. The two most notable 
events of the war on land were the capture of Washing- 
ton and the burning of its public buildings by the 
British, and the disastrous defeat of an army of British 
veterans at New Orleans by General Jackson. 

3. The War on the Sea 

Although, at the beginning of the war, the Americans 
had but twelve vessels as against England's twelve bun- 



Tlic Period of European Interference 183 

dred, the American navy succeeded in winning a series 
of brilliant victories, and often against great odds. 
Because of England's superiority in the number of 
ships, most of the American vessels were finally either 
driven from the sea or blockaded in the harbors of the 
United States, Perhaps even more important than the 
work of the regular navy was the injury which Ameri- 
can privateers did to the commerce of England. 

4. Results 

(a) Treaty of Peace 

The points of dispute which caused the war were 
not mentioned in the treaty of peace. The treaty 
provided for the restoration of the conquests of both 
parties, and arranged for the settlement of boundary 
disputes and other minor points. 

(b) Commercial and Industrial Results 

The main result of this war was the commercial 
independence of the United States, and never since 
then has any nation interfered with American com- 
merce or attempted the impressment of American 
seamen. The restrictions on commerce during the 
war caused the birth of American factories by com- 
pelling the capitalists, especially those in the North, to 
invest in manufacturing rather than in shipping enter- 
prises, and by compelling the people of the country 
to rely upon home industry for their manufactured 
goods. 

(c) Effect on the Nation 

The war had the effect of welding the Nation more 
firmly, and of making it independent not only of 
Europe, but of its own colonial traditions. It com- 
pelled a broader interpretation of the powers of the 
Constitution. The Nation now took a higher posi- 
tion among the nations of the world than it had held 
before. 



184 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN IN lEREERENCE 

IX TiiK Hartford Convention, 1814 

As one of the principal industries of New I{n<;land was 
foreign commerce, the Embargo and Non-Importation pol- 
icy of Jefferson, and especially the Enforcement Act which 
provided drastic measures for the enforcement of this 
policy, bore heavily upon the business interests of that sec- 
tion. The people of New England soon became strongly 
opposed to these laws which interfered with her commerce. 
In 1809 the legislature of Massachusetts passed resolu- 
tions which in spirit were much the same as the Virginia 
and Kentucky Resolutions. New England was strongly 
Federalist, and was vigorously opposed to Jefferson and 
the principles of the Republican party. The people of 
New England were also inclined to be friendly with Eng- 
land because of commercial relations with that nation, and 
were therefore opposed to the War of 1812. As this war 
progressed. New England became still more strongly op- 
posed to it, and events seemed to indicate that her leaders 
were contemplating some kind of armed resistance to the 
national government. In 1814 delegates from the various 
New England states met in convention at Hartford, Con- 
necticut, to consider ])lans for unity of action on the part 
of New England. This convention conducted its pro- 
ceedings behind closed doors, and drew up resolutions 
(.k'claring, among other things, that when the Constitution 
was violated by acts of Congress, it became the duty of a 
state to interpose its authority. The Convention sent a 
delegate to Congress bearing these and other resolutions 
of a similar nature, but before the delegate reached Con- 
gress, peace was declared. 

X Tiuv l\'KcriASE oi' Ei.oKn)A, 181!) 

The United v^tales had long wished to secure the Elor- 
idas, and during the war of 1812 had seized a part of 
West Florida. Spain was unable to govern well her pos- 
sessions so far from home, and Florida was in a constant 
turmoil. It was made a refuge by all sorts of criminals, 
and vsas the source of constant trouble to the United 



The Period of Hiti(>l\\i)i Infcrfcrcnce 1S5 

States. The invasion of Florida by an expedition under 
Andrew Jackson which had been sent against the Semi- 
nole Indians in Georgia, brought matters to a crisis. 
This resulted in Spain's selling East Florida to the United 
States for $5,000,000 and giving up all her claims to 
West Florida. The United States, at the same time, gave 
up its claim to Texas. 

XI The Monroe Doctrine, 1833 

About 1815 Russia announced that she claimed the Pa- 
cific Coast from Alaska down to the 51st parallel, and 
that no foreign vessel should approach within one hun- 
dred miles of the shore. It was her evident intention to 
extend her influence southward and to shut out the United 
States from the Pacific Coast. John Ouincy Adams, as 
Secretary of State, entered a vigorous protest against 
these designs of Russia, in which he stated that neither 
North nor South America was open to further European 
colonization. Between 1810 and 1822 all of the Spanish- 
American colonies in North and South America, taking 
advantage of the weakened condition of Spain, threw off 
Spanish authority and established independent republics, 
wdiich were recognized by the United States as independ- 
ent powers. These republics included Mexico and all of 
South America save Brazil, which still belonged to Por- 
tugal, In 1S15 nearly all of the European powers, except 
England, formed what is known as the Holy Alliance, 
their object being to perpetuate monarchial government 
and to assist Spain in the recovery of her lost possessions. 
Great Britain proposed that the United States combine 
with her against this Holy Alliance. The United States 
declined to act in concert with Great Britain, but Presi- 
dent Monroe, at the suggestion of Adams, included in his 
annual message to Congress a statement known as the 
Monroe Doctrine. This statement defined the attitude of 
the United States on the question of European coloniza- 
tion in the New World and European interference with 
American republics. The doctrine has ever since been 



1S6 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

adheretl to 1)\' the I/nited States, aiul in substance is as 
follows : 

1. European nations will not be pcrniittetl to establish 
any new colonies in America or to add any more 
territory to those already existing-. 

2. Kuropcan nations will not be permitted to interfere 
with the internal afifairs of American republics. 

The Monroe Doctrine was the logical result of the prin- 
ciple of American Neutrality established by Washington. 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 
I Hamilton's Financial INIkasures, 1790-1791 

The new government found the national treasury 
empty, with a debt of about $54,000,000 on hand, and the 
credit of the United States both at home and among for- 
eign nations almost worthless. Alexander Hamilton, Sec- 
retary of the Treasury, broug"!!! forward a plan for plac- 
ing the financial affairs of the government on a firm 
foundation. This plan proved him to be one of the ablest 
financiers in the United States. His plan was as follows : 

1. A slight increase in the duties laid by the first tariff. 

2. An excise or internal tax to be placed on distilled 
liquors. 

3. The funding of the National Debt. The old bonds 
of the nation had fallen to twenty-five per cent of 
their face value. New LTnited States bonds were to 
be issued for the total face value of the old and ex- 
changed for them. 

4. The assumption of state debts. Debts contracted 
by the states during the Revolution for its support 
were to be assumed and paid in full by the national 
government. 

5. Establishment of the United States Bank. The 
management of the bank was to be private, but the 



Financial Legislation 187 

United States was to be a lari;"e shareholder, reserv- 
ing the right of examining- into its financial condition. 
His object here was to enable the government to man- 
age its financial affairs more easily and to give stabil- 
ity to money matters thronghont the country. 

After much discussion Hamilton's entire plan for estab- 
lishing the credit of the national government was adopted. 
The result of its operation was better than Hamilton him- 
self had dared hope. The credit of the United States was 
firmly established, both at home and abroad. It was not 
- long before a dollar's w^orth of United States bonds was 
worth a dollar of gold in London, whereas before a dollar's 
worth of these bonds was worth less than twenty-five 
cents. The success of this plan tended to give the people 
confidence in the strength, power, and dignity of the na- 
tional government. 

n jKFt'iiRSON AND Gallatin's Financial Policy, 1801-1809 

The public debt of the United States had increased from 
about $77,000,000 in 1793 to nearly $83,000,000 in 1800. 
The income had increased in the same period from less 
than $4,000,000 to more than $10,000,000. Jefferson ad- 
vocated a reduction of public expenses in order to lessen 
the taxes and to pay the public debt. The Secretary of 
the Treasury, Albert Gallatin, formed a plan for the car- 
rying out of this policy. The reduction in expense was 
accomplished by reducing the army about one-half, and 
the navy from twenty-seven vessels in commission for 
service to seven, and by stopping all construction of ves- 
sels for the navy. This was practically the destruction of 
the military defenses of the Nation, but this policy, to- 
gether with other measures, was so successful in accom- 
plishing its purpose that by 1808 the public debt had been 
reduced to $45,000,000 and the taxes had been reduced 
more than $1,000,000, although the expenses of the gov- 
ernment had constantly increased, and Louisiana had 
been bought and paid for in this period. Gallatin's suc- 
cess marks him as a financier of great ability. 



188 NATIONAL GROW'III AND EUROPEAN IN'IERFERENCE 

IJI TiiK National Banks and Statk Banks 

At the time of the estal)hshment of the National Bank 
in 17!)1 there were only four State hanks in existence ; 
when the twenty-year charter of the National Bank ex- 
pired in l.Sll, there were eighty-eight of these state banks 
in existence, and in the three years following this number 
was more than doubled. In general these State banks 
were hostile to the National bank, for they hoped to secure 
its business and the government deposits. Some of the 
states were interested in these banks, and for that and 
other reasons took action in their legislatures against re- 
newing the charter of the National Bank. Many feared 
the influence of this bank as a monopoly, and also as a 
corrupt factor in politics. All these and other influences 
prevented the renewal of the charter in ISll, and thus 
during the war of 1812, when most needed, a tried and 
solid financial system was lacking in the United States. 
At the close of the war the financial affairs of the nation 
were in a bad condition and because of this, Congress in 
18 1(), renewed the charter of the United States Bank for 
a period of twenty 3'ears. 

iV Taku-i- Lkcislation 

1. The I' list Tariff .let, jySc^ 

In order to secure revenue for the new government 
the first Congress at once proceeded to levy import 
duties. During the discussion of the bill for this pur- 
pose, the (juestion as to whether one of the main objects 
of import duties shouUl be the protection of American 
industries, was first brought before the American peo- 
ple. The main (object of this bill as passed was the 
obtaining of revenue, but the law was also protective 
in a small measure. 

3. Grozvth of the Idea of Protection 

Up to 181() there was very little change in the tariff 
policy of the United States. While the duties were 
changed and in many cases increased from time to 



Political Parties 180 

time, the principle of tariff for revenue chiefly remained 
the same. The War of 1813, however, had aided the 
development of American manufactures and their pro- 
tection and encouragement by the government became 
a matter of great importance. This led to the passing 
of a tariff law in 1816 which had for its express pur- 
pose the protection of American industries. This prin- 
ciple was established still more firmly by the passage in 
1824 of a still higher protective tariff. 

There was practically no opposition to the tariff policy 
of the government up to the adoption of the principle 
of protection. Even in ISIG the opposition was not 
strong, but in the few years following it gathered 
strength, especially in the South. The northern and 
eastern states had developed valuable manufacturing 
interests, and these sections were, as a whole, favorable 
to a protective policy. The South, on the other hand, 
had remained almost entirely agricultural, and had de- 
veloped no manufacturing interests of importance. The 
people of the South, therefore, thought they had nothing 
to gain by the principle of protection, and became 
strongly opposed to it. While those in New England 
who were engaged in manufacturing favored a pro- 
tective tariff, those who were engaged in foreign com- 
merce were opposed to it from the first. 

POLITICAL PARTIES 
I Rise of Political Parties 

Political parties in the United States had their real 
origin during Washington's administration. They began 
with the difference of opinion on the part of the people 
and statesmen of the United States as to the nature of the 
new government. Section 8, Article I, of the Constitu- 
tion, after enumerating specific duties of Congress, says 
that Congress shall have power "To make all Laws which 
shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution 
the foregoing Powers, and all Powers vested by this 



190 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

Constitution in the Government of the United States, or 
in any Department or Officer thereof." Washington, 
Hamilton and Adams were the leaders of those who 
thought that the Constitution should be loosely interpre- 
ted ; that is, that this clause should be taken to mean 
that the new government should exercise not only the 
powers specifically granted to it by the Constitution, but 
that it should also assume such implied powers as might 
be necessary or even expedient to carry out those powers 
specifically given to it. They wished to centralize the 
government, and believed that it should be controlled by 
the well-born, educated and wealthy classes, Jeflferson 
• and Madison were the leaders of those who believed that 
the Constitution should be strictly construed ; that Congress 
should assume only such implied powers as were abso- 
lutely necessary to carry out the powers specifically given 
to it. They did not believe that the government should 
be centralized or controlled by the up]icr classes. They 
had faith in the common people, and believed that the 
affairs of government could be safely entrusted to them. 
But while Jeflferson held these democratic views, his ideas 
were very different from those represented by the rising 
democracy which came into power with the election of 
Jackson in 1828. During his administration, Jefferson, in 
a measure, became converted to the loose construction of 
the Constitution. Washington, Hamilton and yVdams and 
their followers became known as the Federalist party, and 
Jefferson and his party were called the Anti-Federalist 
or Republican party. 

II Faix or TnK Fki)i;rai.tst Party 

During the first years of the government under the 
Constitution the Federalist party was supreme. Washing- 
ton and John Adams were Federalist presidents, Wash- 
ington's term lasting from 1789 to 1707, and Adams's from 
1797 to 1801. To that party must be given the credit of 
establishing the government upon a sound and not too 
radical basis. Yet it was doomed by its very makeup 



Political Parties 191 

to early destruction. It was out of harmony with the 
rising- democratic spirit of the RepubHc, and its fall 
marked not only the end of a political party, but also the 
passing of the old aristocratic ideas of government from 
American political life. The chief cause of the fall of 
the Federalist party was its theory of government by the 
leaders rather than by the mass of the people, which was 
not in accord with the democratic tendencies of the age, 
and it was this that made the fall of the party permanent. 
The passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts brought a 
great deal of impopularity on the party, which was fur- 
ther weakened by internal dissensions. The opposition of 
the Federalists to the War of 1813 gave the death blow to 
their already fallen party. 

Ill The Republican Party 

Wliile the Federalists did not entirely disappear as a 
political party until after the War of 1812, they lost most 
of their importance in political life after the election of 
Jefferson in 1800, and the rest of this period was a 
period of Republican supremacy. The rapid growth of 
the West was an important factor in the growth of the 
Republican party. The new states carved out of the ter- 
ritory west of the Alleghanies represented the rising dem- 
ocracy of the Repul)lic — the belief that one man is as 
good as another irrespective of his wealth or birth. The 
effect of this belief in American politics is first seen in 
the election of Jefferson, and later in the election of the 
war congress of 1811-13. Jefferson was the first Repub- 
lican president, holding that office from 1801 to 1800. He 
was followed by Madison, 180!)-! 81 7. Monroe, who was 
president from 1817 to 1835 was nominally a Republican 
president, but his administratiou was characterized by an 
almost total lack of party feeling, so much so that this 
period is commonly known as the "Kra of good feeling." 
John Quincy Adams was the fourth of the Republican 
presidents, and it was during his administration that the 
party broke up into personal factions. 



192 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 

I Growth in Tkkkitorv and Population 

At the close of the Revolution the territory of the 
United States extended from the Atlantic to the Missis- 
sippi, and from Canada to Florida. Of all this vast area 
of over 800,000 square miles, less than 300,000 were 
occupied ; and of the 3,000,000 inhabitants, the great mass 
lived east of the Appalachian mountains. By the end of 
this period (1828) the area of the United States had 
increased — through the acquisition of the Louisiana ter- 
ritory in 1803 and of Florida in 1819 — to more than 
2,000,000 square miles, of which G00,000 were settled. 
The population had reached nearly 12,000,000, the in- 
crease in the V/est being much more rapid than in the 
East. 

n AIOVI'MF.NT OF PoPUT<ATION 

1. Coitscs 

From early colonial times settlers had been slowly 
moving westward in search of new homes, chiefly along 
the Ohio. The depression in business affairs immedi- 
ately after the Revolution led to a great increase ot 
migration westward, and to the settling of the terri- 
tory between 1he Alleghanics and tlic Mississippi. It 
was true throughout this period — in fact even to the 
present dav — that whenever there were hard times in 
the East with lack of business and scarcity of money, 
there was a rush of settlers westward. Land was cheap, 
fertile and well watered, and men welcomed the oppor- 
tunity to build up homes and fortunes in a new country. 
The immigration of foreigners also aided this move- 
ment, though at that time it had not become a factor 
of great importance. 

2. Direction 

All this migration was along two definite courses 
which ran westward in parallel lines from the northern 



Groivth of the Nation 193 

and southern sections of the country bordering on the 
Atlantic. As the settlers moved from these sections, 
they carried with them into the new territory, their 
customs and institutions, and thus the nation developed 
along parallel lines running east and west. Thus in 
the southern part of the western territory the same 
industrial and social conditions prevailed as in the 
southern states, and slavery became established with the 
settlement of the country. In the northern part of this 
new territory the ideas and institutions of the northern 
Atlantic states prevailed, and consequently slavery was 
not established. 

Ill RESULTS OF Westward Expansion 
1. Formation of States 

In the organization of this new territory, the Ordi- 
nance of 1787 was followed. The rapid settlement of 
the western lands soon led to the formation of new 
states in accordance with the provisions of this Ordi- 
nance. The first state carved out of this western coun- 
try, Kentucky, was admitted into the Union in 1792, 
and others soon followed. In 1828 the Union contained 
twenty-four states— almost twice the original number 

of which nine were in the Mississippi valley. Thus 

the influence of the West became an important factor 
in national affairs. In character the constitutions of 
these states was very democratic — much more so than 
in the East. This was due to the conditions of frontier 
life where every man stood on an equality with every 
other man, dependent on his own efforts. 

2. Internal Improvements 

The rapid growth of the West and the consequent 
increase in the volume of its commerce made it neces- 
sary and valuable to both the East and West to open up 
highways between the two sections. The matter of 
building roads, bridges, canals, and improving the rivers 
by the aid of the national government was early taken 
up by Congress and became a political issue. The first 



194 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

work of this kind unck-rtakcn by the p^overnment was 
the biiikhng- of the Cumberland road between the Ohio 
river and the Potomac. Althout^h internal improve- 
ments were constantly discussed, nothing more was done 
by the national g-overnment during this period. The 
states, however, took up the work. New York com- 
pleted the Erie Canal in 1825, and this canal has be- 
come an important factor in the nation's commerce. 
Other states also built important canals, roads and 
bridges. 

3. Struggle Over S!az'cr\: The Missouri Compromise, 
1820^ 

The westward expansion of the nation led to the 
first struggle over slavery. Slavery had existed in all 
the colonies, but the fact that slaves could not be used 
with profit in the North brought about the abolition of 
slavery in New England and in nearly all the middle 
states, and its prohibition in the Northwest Territory. 
The fact that there were but few slaves in the North 
caused a moral sentiment to grow up slowly against 
slavery there, and this sentiment aided the industrial 
conditions in causing its abolition. In the South, on 
the other hand, slavery had become still more firmlj 
entrenched in the industrial and social life. As has 
been said, the settlers of the western territory moved 
directly west from the Atlantic states, carrying their 
institutions with them. Consequently, as this territory 
was organized into states, these states were free or 
slave, according to the convictions of the settlers and 
to whether the states lay north or south of the Ohio 
river. The application of Missouri, the first state lying 
wholly west of the Mississippi, for admission into the 
Union, led to a discussion of the extension of slavery 
into the Louisiana territory, which was finally settled 
bv the Missouri Compromise. 

This compromise had its origin in the desire of the 
free and the slave sections of the nation each to prevent 



Groz^'th of llic Nation 195 

the Other from securing the larg^er number of repre- 
sentatives in the United States v^enate. The northern 
states, having a larger population than the southern, 
would always have a majority in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. The southern states, knowing this, were 
determined to control as many votes in the Senate as 
the northern states, and thus be in a position to prevent 
any legislation injurious to slavery interests. In order 
to retain this control a slave state must be admitted 
into the Union with every free state. Up to 1818 this 
plan had been followed carefully and of the twenty-two 
states then forming the Union, eleven were free and 
eleven were slave. To preserve this balance required 
that the territory included in the Louisiana Purchase 
should be half slave and half free. The North was 
determined that slavery should not be admitted into 
this new territory. When in 1818 Missouri applied 
for admission as a state, violent discussion arose. The 
House would not permit Missouri to enter as a slave 
state, and the Senate would not allow slavery to be 
prohibited. In 1820 IMaine applied for admission to 
the Union as a free state. The southern members of 
Congress would not consent to the admission of Maine 
unless Missouri were allowed to enter as a slave state. 
As a compromise it was finally decided: 

(1) Maine should be admitted as a free state, and 
Missouri as a slave state. 

(2) The Louisiana Purchase should be divided by 
the parallel of 3fi° 30' and in all territory north of 
the line, excepting Missouri, slavery should be for- 
ever prohibited. 

It was generally thought this Compromise had set- 
tled the dispute regarding slavery by restricting its 
area, but because of the acquisition of new territory, and 
because of the difference in the industrial and social 
conditions of the North and South, it could result only 
in postponing the final conflict. 



196 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

IV Growth of National Unity 

Just as at the time of the Revolution the danger from 
England had forced the colonies to act in unity, during 
this period the continual interference of Europe in Amer- 
ican affairs, directly and indirectly, in a general way 
tended to the growth of American national unity. Espe- 
cially was this true of the war of 1812. The resentment 
of English and French outrages united the people as 
nothing else had done and the successful conclusion of the 
war strengthened this unity of feeling. This war prac- 
tically ended direct interference of the European nations 
in American affairs and left the nation united and in a 
position to develop a true national life. The acquisition 
of Louisiana was nationalizing in its effects, for in its 
purchase, organization and government the national gov- 
ernment was forced to assume and exercise powers far 
greater than any specifically granted by the Constitution. 
This forced the Republican party to adopt the nationaliz- 
ing policy to which it was at first so much opposed, and 
as the Republican party was supreme from 1801 to the 
end of this period, its work in advancing this policy was 
of great importance. The rapid growth of the West was 
a most important factor in the growth of national unity. 
The men who settled this new country went into the West 
under the protection and government of the nation, not 
of the state ; their state governments had to be created by 
their own efforts, and naturally were subordinated to the 
national government in every way, in their minds. There 
was no state jealousy which would tend to hinder the 
evercise of national authority, hence the influence of the 
West was strongly for nationality. The Supreme Court 
of the United States in a series of important decisions 
established still more firmly the supremacy of the national 
government, and in many cases specifically defined the 
limits of the state governments. Among the more im- 
portant of these cases were : 

(1) ATcCulloch vs. Maryland. In this case the state 
of Maryland attempted to tax the United States Bank, 



Institutional Life 197 

but the Supreme Court held that it could not be taxed 
because it was in part a national institution. 

(2) Fletcher vs. Peck. In this case the court held 
that the state of Georgia could not revoke grants of lands 
even if they had been obtained by fraud, because it would 
be the violation of contract which the national constitu- 
tion says shall not be impaired. 

(3) Dartmouth College Case. In this case New Hamp- 
shire attempted to modify the charter of Dartmouth Col- 
lege, but the court held that it could not be done because 
it would impair the obligation of contract. 

The chief influence working against the growth of na- 
tionality was slavery. While it was not an active factor 
during this period, yet it was surely though slowly under- 
mining the unity of the nation by causing the North and 
South to develop industrially and socially along entirely 
different lines. Thus different interests sprang up in the 
two sections, and the conditions which caused the con- 
flict of the following period were definitely shaping them- 
selves. The attitude of the two sections of the country, 
and the strength of slavery in the South, is shown in the 
Alissouri Compromise which was the first struggle of the 
long conflict that came to predominate all questions and to 
threaten the existence of the nation. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

During the period from 17S0 to 1828, institutional life in 
the United States was gradually changing from colonial con- 
ditions. In the matter of government and social life, there 
was a marked growth toward democracy. The aristocratic 
forms, ceremonies and distinctions based on class, were grad- 
ually dying out except in the South. The democratic ideas 
that led to the election of Jackson in 1828, worked a great 
change in social conditions. This period also witnessed the 
beginning of the industrial growth and expansion of the nation. 
In religious affairs a much more liberal spirit gradually de- 



198 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

veloped, and there was also a distinct improvement in educa- 
tion. 

I Industrial. Conditions 

The underlying factor of the industrial development of 
the nation, especially in the South, during this and the 
following period was slavery. While its importance as an 
industrial factor was not recognized at this time, it was 
determining to a large extent the development of the 
nation by causing the development of dififerent interests in 
the northern and southern sections. The invention of the 
cotton gin and the great improvement in weaving ma- 
chinery which increased many fold the demand for raw 
cotton in both Europe and America, made slaves of more 
value not only in the cotton raising states but also in those 
states that raised slaves for the market. These conditions 
served to fasten slavery still more firmly on the South, 
while in the northern states where slavery did not exist 
to any extent, other interests grew up. Slavery caused 
the laborers from foreign countries to avoid the South 
and to go into the North where free labor prevailed. 
Thus the North rapidly outgrew the South in free popu- 
lation. Since by the character of its labor, the South 
could take but little part in the commercial and manufac- 
turing development of the nation, it soon began to fall 
behind the northern states in wealth. Thus the two sec- 
tions of the nation continued to drift apart industrially. 

1. Manufactures 

At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, 
American manufacturing consisted chiefly of the house- 
hold manufacture of articles of common use. Inven- 
tions of machinery and the great increase in the amount 
of cotton raised by the South led to the early establish- 
ment of cotton mills in New England, and this industry 
increased until by 1828 hundreds of thousands of men 
and women were employed in the many great factories 
in which were invested many millions of dollars. The 



Institutional Life 199 

rise of woolen mills was nearly as rapid though not 
beginning so early. The iron industry was devel- 
oped in Pennsylvania to a considerable extent, and the 
foundation laid for its greater development in the fol- 
lowing period. Jefferson's Embargo Policy and the 
War of 1813 were very beneficial to American manu- 
factures, for by shutting out foreign commerce they 
forced the people to establish manufactures of various 
kinds, and by the injury done to commerce they served 
to turn capital to manufacturing instead. By 181G the 
manufactures had become of such importance that it 
was deemed necessary to establish a protective tarifif 
for their encouragement. By 1828 the value of manu- 
factures in the United States amounted to many hun- 
dreds of millions of dollars. This advance had taken 
place almost entirely in the northern states, the South 
having done very little in the way of building up manu- 
factures or commerce. 

2. Agriculture 

During this period the nation was, as a whole, agri- 
cultural. Although other industries had been estab- 
lished in the northern states, the South had remained 
entirely agricultural. This, as has been stated, was 
due largely to slavery. At the time of the formation of 
the Constitution there had been a strong sentiment 
against slavery in some of the southern states, but this 
gradually died out after the invention of the cotton gin 
by Eli Whitney in 1793. This invention made the 
cotton crop one of immense value in the South. Rice, 
tobacco and cotton were the great southern staples, but 
Virginia and neighboring states became wheat producers 
also during this period, and raised large quantities for 
export. In the middle and northern states large 
amounts of food products were raised and exported, but 
commercial and manufacturing interests took much of 
the attention of the people of those sections. The west- 
ern country was almost entirely agricultural. 



200 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

3. Commerce. 

Commerce now became a very important factor in 
national development. During the Revolution the com- 
merce of the nation was almost entirely destroyed, but 
it soon sprang up again. The constant warfare of 
European nations in the first part of this period gave 
America a great opportunity, and a large foreign com- 
merce was built up by the middle and northern states. 
Jefiferson's Embargo policy and the war of 1812 for a 
time hindered the development of commerce, but in 
general the period was one of great commercial f)ros- 
perity and expansion. 

4. Transportation and Communication 

While the means of transportation and communica- 
tion existing in 1828 seem very poor when compared 
with those of the present time, they were far in advance 
of those of the colonies. The invention and introduction 
of steamboats was the main feature of improvement in 
transportation during this time, and was very important 
in its efifect on both industrial and social conditions. 
The steamboat was one of the main factors in opening 
up the western country which exerted so much influ- 
ence on the whole institutional life of the nation. The 
building of roads, canals, and bridges by the various 
states also had an important efiFect on industrial condi- 
tions, because it brought the sections of the country 
together and broadened the field of industrial expansion. 

II Social Conditions 

During the first part of this period the social condi- 
tions were much like those of colonial times, the same 
aristocratic ideas in a measure prevailing. But there was 
a distinct advance during this period, especially during 
the latter part, in democratic ideals and modes of living. 
This was due largely to the development of the West, 
which was very democratic, owing to the manner of its 
settlement and to the equality of its settlers. This growth 



Institutional Life 201 

in democracy is shown in many ways. Washington was 
inaugurated with a great deal of pomp and ceremony ; this 
was largely done away with by Jefferson, and still greater 
simplicity was introduced by later Presidents in accord- 
ance with the democratic tendencies of the times. At the 
time of the adoption of the Constitution the dress of the 
wealthier classes was very rich and elaborate, as during 
colonial times ; this too was changed gradually, men of all 
classes coming to wear more nearly the same style and 
quality of clothing. The growth in democracy is also 
shown in the extension of the franchise. While in 1800 
only about one person in thirty-five could vote, by 1828 
about one person in ten had the privilege of the suffrage. 
This change was due to the abolishing of property and 
other qualifications, in which the new western states led. 
These democratic ideas were introduced much more slow- 
ly in the South on account of the plantation system of 
living, and the holdnig of slaves, which served to keep up 
class distinctions which were rapidly dying out in the 
commercial and manufacturing states. 

III Government 

There was little change in the institution of government 
during this period, the main lines of the development of 
the United States in this respect having been laid down 
during the preceding periods. The organization and gov- 
ernment of all the newly acquired territory was based on 
the Ordinance of 1787. The formation of state govern- 
ments proceeded on the same lines as those of the state 
governments formed during the Revolution, which in turn 
were based on the governments of the colonies. Changes 
in the national government consisted merely in the rational 
development of the principles of the Constitution. 

IV Religion 

During this period the old intolerance was broken down 
and complete religious liberty was established. At the 
time of the Revolution religious qualifications were re- 



202 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

quired of public officers and in many cases of voters, in 
nearly all the states. These were largely done away with 
during the period immediately following the Revolution, 
and Church and State soon became completely separated 
in all the states. Many new sects came into existence, and 
national organizations of the various churches w^ere 
formed. 

V Education 

While the advance in education and in the intellectual 
life of the nation is not so remarkable as that in other re- 
spects, the improvement over the conditions of Colonial 
times is considerable. Common schools were established 
throughout the western country as they were also in the 
eastern part of the United States. These schools were 
provided for by the sale of public lands, and by taxation. 
Numerous academies and colleges sprang up, and high 
schools began to be established in the East. Improved 
methods of teaching and study w^ere introduced to some 
extent, and greater attention was paid to the sciences than 
during the colonial period. In the matter of the general 
education of the people there was a distinct advance, this 
being a natural part of the democratic tendencies of the 
period. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Into what two periods does the history of the United States 
between 1789 and 1860 naturally divide itself? Explain fully why 
the first period may be called National Growth and European 
Interference. Explain fully why the second period may be called 
Westward Expansion and Slavery. 

THE PERIOD OF EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 
Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on The Period of European 
Interference, each pupil should read the third number of Hart's 
"Source Readers in American History," pp. 217-315. See "Ex- 
planatory and Suggestive," page ix.) Who made the laws of 
France about the time Washington was first elected President of 
the United States? Compare the powers which the French people 
had in making their laws at that time with the power which the 
American people had in making their laws. Describe the way in 
which the French government and the nobles treated the common 
people. How did this treatment cause the French people to feel 
toward their government? In what way did the American 
Revolution and the part which. France took in it help to cause 
the French Revolution? Describe some of the things which 
took place in France during this Revolution. In what way were 
these acts the natural result of the bad treatment which the 
French people had received from their government? How did 
the French Revolution lead to war between France and England? 
Explain fully why the French expected the Americans to help 
them in this war. Describe the work of Genet in the United 
States. Describe fully the attitude of the Americans toward 
France in this war. What was the attitude of Washington? Ex- 
plain the Neutrality Proclamation. Explain fully why the principle 
of American Neutrality in European Affairs which this proclama- 
tion established is of very great importance in the history of the 
United States. How is this principle related to the Monroe 
Doctrine? 

Explain the Rule of 1756. Illustrate how it was applied to 
America. Describe the Impressment Policy of Great Britain. How 
did this policy affect America, and how was it received by the 
Americans? What was the general attitude of the English gov- 
ernment toward the United States after the American Revolution? 



204 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

How was war with England averted at this time? What was 
the nature of the Jay Treaty? How was it received by the 
American people? How was it received in France? What was the 
effect of the Genet affair and the Neutrality Proclamation on 
France? Explain the X, Y, Z Affair. What effect did this treat- 
ment of the American commissioners have on the American gov- 
ernment and the American people? Describe the preparations for 
war witli France, and the few battles which took place between 
some of the war vessels of the two nations. How was war 
between France and the United States averted? 

How did the firm stand which the Federalists took in the trouble 
with France cause the people to feel toward the Federalist party? 
What led to the passage of the Alien and Sedition Laws? Explain 
the Alien Laws. What was the object of these laws? To what 
extent were they enforced? Explain the Sedition Act. What 
was the object of this act? To what extent was it enforced? How 
were the Alien and Sedition Acts received by the people? What 
effect did their passage have on the Federalist party? Upon what 
grounds did the Republicans oppose the Alien and Sedition Acts? 
How did these laws lead to the passage of the Virginia and 
Kentucky Resolutions? Who was the author of each set of these 
resolutions? Explain carefully the principles which these resolu- 
tions stated. In what respect did the Kentucky and the Virginia 
Resolutions differ? What would have been the effect on the 
national government if the principles stated in the resolutions had 
been carried out? How were the Virginia and Kentucky Resolu- 
tions received by the legislatures of the other states? Why arc 
these resolutions important? 

Why did the United States and especially the people in the 
western part desire to have control of the IMississippi? When 
Spain had control of it, what rights did she grant the United 
States, and why were these rights of great value to the western 
people? Why did the LTnited States object to Spain ceding 
Louisiana to France? WHicn it became known" that France had 
secured this territory, what conditions made Jefferson anxious to 
buy the territory at the mouth of the Mississippi with as little delay 
as possible? What conditions in Europe made Napoleon willing 
to sell the entire Louisiana Territory? Why did he sell it to the 
United States? 

W'hcn did Napoleon secure control of the French government 
and bring the French Revolution to an end? Describe brielly 
the relation of France to the rest of Europe from 1803 to 1815. 
Why did France and England each try to destroy the commerce 
of the other? Explain carefully the British "Orders in Council" 
and the French "Decrees." When is a port actually blockaded? 



Questions and Topics 205 

Explain carefully how the Orders in Council and Decrees injured 
American commerce. Describe the way in which the British at 
this time were enforcing the so-called "Right of Search." What 
do you think the United States should have done under these cir- 
cumstances? What was Jefiferson's attitude toward the army and 
navy? What was his policy toward England and France? De- 
scribe the Embargo Act. Describe the Enforcement Act. What 
was the efifect of the Embargo Act on England and France? 
What was its effect on the United States? In what way did the 
Non-Importation Act differ from the Embargo Act? 

Discuss or review the causes and conditions which led to the 
War of 1812. Explain carefully in what important respects the 
Congress which met in December, 1811, differed from those which 
immediately preceded it. Why would the nature of the new 
Congress naturally lead to war? Why was war declared against 
England instead of against France? Describe the condition of the 
American armj'^ at the beginning of the war. Describe the con- 
dition of the navy at this time. How would the poor condition 
of the army and navj' naturally afifect the success of the Americans 
in the war? What other conditions at the beginning of the war 
tended to prevent American success? Describe the war on land 
during the year 1812. Describe the war on land during the year 
1813. Describe the war on land during the year 1814. Describe 
the battle of New Orleans. Explain why this battle would not 
have been fought if the War of 1812 had taken place since 1850. 
Describe carefully the war on sea. State the terms of the treaty 
of peace. Describe some of the more important results of the 
war. 

Why were the people of New England opposed to Jefiferson's 
embargo and non-importation policy and to the War of 1812? Dis- 
cuss the causes of the Hartford convention. What was the object 
of holding this convention? What did this convention do? Com- 
pare the work of this convention with the Virginia and Kentucky 
Resolutions. 

Why did the United States wish to buy Florida? What caused 
Spain to become willing to sell it? What were the terms of the 
purchase? 

Describe the conditions which led to the formation of the Holy 
Alliance. What was the object of this alliance? Why did Great 
Britain and the United States object to its proposal to help Spain 
recover the Spanish-American colonies? Describe the claim of 
Russia on the Pacific coast at this time. Describe the attitude of 
Secretary Adams on this question. Explain carefully all the cir- 
cumstances and conditions that caused Monroe to insert in his 
message to Congress the statement known as the Monroe Doctrine. 



206 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

Explain the Monroe Doctrine and show how it is related to the 
principle of American Neutrality in European Affairs. Explain 
carefully why the period of European Interference ends witli the 
Monroe Doctrine. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the reason for dividing the history of the United States 
between 1789 and 1860 into the periods of National Growth and 
European Interference, and Westward Expansion and Slavery. 
Discuss the origin of the principle of American Neutrality in Eu- 
ropean Aflfairs, and explain why this principle has been very im- 
portant in the history of the United States. Discuss the conditions 
leading to the Jay Treaty and the results of the treaty. Discuss 
the breach with France. Discuss the Alien and Sedition Acts and 
the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Discuss the conditions 
leading to the purchase of Louisiana. Discuss the causes of the 
War of 1S12, including Orders in Council, Decrees, and embargo 
policy of Jefferson. Discuss the war on land. Discuss the war 
on sea. Discuss the results of the war. Discuss the Hartford con- 
vention. Discuss the Monroe Doctrine, including its causes and 
effects. 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain fully the financial condition of the national government 
at the time Washington became President. What was the object 
of the first tariff? Explain fully each part of Hamilton's financial 
plan. How was his plan received by Congress? What effect did 
the adoption of Hamilton's financial measures have on the credit of 
the United States? Explain carefully how these measures 
strengthened the national government. In wliat cnmlition were 
the financial affairs of the national government at tlie time Jefferson 
became President? How did Jefferson propose to reduce taxation 
and the national debt? To what extent were he and Gallatin 
successful in doing this? Explain how their measures affected the 
army and navy. Discuss the rise of state banks. What prevented 
the renewal of the charter of the United States Bank in 1811? 
What caused its renewal in 1816? 

What is meant by a tariff as used in coimcction with natinual 
legislation? Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for 
revenue only. Explain carefully what is meant by a tariff for 
revenue and for the protection of home industries also. Discuss 
the value of the principle of protection as used in connection witli 



Questions and Topics 207 

the tariff. What was the object of the first tariff law that Con- 
gress passed? What was the main object of all the tariff laws 
that were passed by Congress before 1816? Explain carefully 
how the war of 1812 led to the passage of the protective tariff 
law of 1816. Discuss the growth of the idea of protection. Dis- 
cuss the growth of the principle of the protective tariff. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the object, nature, and result of Hamilton's financial 
plan. Discuss the object, nature, and result of Jefferson and 
Gallatin's financial policy. Discuss the history of the United 
States Bank during this period, including the rise of state banks 
and their effect on the United States Bank. Give a careful dis- 
cussion of the history of the tariff during this period. 



POLITICAL PARTIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain carefully what caused the rise of political parties and 
why they continue to exist. What is the value of political parties? 
What was the first great question that caused the people of the 
United States to divide themselves into political parties? Explain 
carefully the meaning of what is called the elastic clause of the 
Constitution. Explain carefully what is meant by the "loose 
interpretation of the Constitution." Explain carefully what is 
meant by the "strict interpretation of the Constitution." State 
which of these two interpretations tends to create a strong 
national government, and give reasons for your answer. 

Name some of the more important leaders of the Federalist 
party. Name the Federalist Presidents and state when each was 
President. Explain carefully the main principles and ideas of this 
party. Describe briefly the work of the Federalist party. Explain 
how the ideas of this party were out of harmony with the spirit 
of the times. Discuss the conditions and the things that caused 
the Federalist party to lose control of the government, and finally 
to cease to exist. 

Name some of the more important leaders of the Republican 
party. Name the Republican Presidents, and state when each 
was President. Explain carefully the main principles and ideas of 
this party. Discuss the decline and fall of the Republican party. 
The promises on which the Republican party secured control of 
the government involved what two general principles? Explain in 
what way this party carried out one of these principles? Explain 
carefully the conditions and circumstances that caused it not to 



208 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

carry out the other promise. Explain why the party in power 
usually gives a loose interpretation to the Constitution, and why 
the party out of power usually opposes this. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the origin and value of political parties in the United 
States. Discuss the principles, growth, and decline of the Fed- 
eralist party. Discuss likewise the principles, growth, and decline 
of the Republican party. 

GROWTH OF THE NATION 
Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the Growth of the Nation, 
each pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source 
Readers in American History," pp. 14.'3-215. See "Explanatory 
and Suggestive," page ix.) Compare the area of the United States 
at the close of the Revolution with its area at the end of the 
period of National Growth and European Interference. Compare 
the settled area of the nation at these different times, showing the 
direction in which the settled area was growing. Compare the 
population of the United States at the close of the Revolution 
with the population in 1828. (Each pupil should draw a map 
illustrating the growth of the total and settled areas of the United 
States during this period.) Describe carefully the condition that 
caused so many people to settle during this period in the country 
between the Mississippi and the Appalachian IMountains. What 
conditions have alwaj^s caused a rush of settlers westward? What 
is meant by the statement that the population moved westward in 
parallel lines from the northern and southern Atlantic coast states. 
Explain how this caused industrial and social conditions to differ 
in the northern and southern sections of the western country. 

Discuss the formation of new states in the western territory. 
Why were the constitutions of these western states more demo- 
cratic than those of the eastern states? What is meant by internal 
improvements as used in national affairs? How did the growth 
of the West make the matter of internal improvements a question 
of national importance? What internal improvements were made 
during this period by the national and state governments? Explain 
how the Ordinance of 1787 affected slavery in the western territory. 
IIow was the question of slavery settled in that part of the western 
territory south of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi? Why did 
the application of Missouri for admission to the Union cause a 
struggle over slavery? What had caused the gradual abolition of 



Questions and Topics 209 

slavery in the North? What had caused slavery to become more 
firmly established in the South? How did this difference between 
the North and the South affect the question of the extension of 
slavery into the Louisiana Territory? Explain carefully all the 
conditions and circumstances that led to the Missouri Compro- 
mise. Explain the terms of this compromise. How did this com- 
promise affect the question of slavery? 

How did the interference with American affairs by Europe 
aid the growth of American national unity? What was the effect 
of the War of 1812 on national life? How did the purchase of 
Louisiana and Florida aid the growth of national unity? Explain 
how the rapid development of the West aided this growth. Ex- 
plain how some of the Supreme Court decisions strengthened the 
national government. Explain how slavery was gradually causing 
the North and the South to drift farther and farther apart. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the growth of the United States in territory and 
population during this period. Discuss the causes of the rapid 
growth of the West. How were industrial and social conditions 
in the West directly related to those in the East? Discuss the 
formation of new states in the western territory. How was the 
question of slavery settled in the western territory east of the 
Mississippi? Discuss the causes, terms, and results of the Missouri 
Compromise. Discuss the growth of national unity during this 
period. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What is meant by the statement that during the period from 
the close of the Revolution to 1828 institutional life in the United 
States was gradually changing from colonial conditions? What 
was the nature of the change in industrial conditions? What was 
the nature of the change in the institutions of social life and gov- 
ernment? What was the nature of the change in the institutions of 
religion and education? (Before continuing further with this work 
the pupil should review carefully the subject of "Institutional Life 
in the Colonies." This review is very important and should not 
be omitted.) 

Describe briefly the condition of manufactures in the colonies. 
Explain how the Embargo Acts and the War of 1812 caused the 
growth of American manufactures. In what way was the invention 
of machinery related to the increase in the manufacture of cotton 
and woolen goods? What relation had the cotton gin to this 

14 



210 NATIONAL GROWTH AND EUROPEAN INTERFERENCE 

increase? Describe briefly the growth of the manufacturing indus- 
try in the United States up to about 1828. In what part of the 
nation did this growth take place? Why did manufactures not 
develop in the West during this period? Explain carefully why 
manufactures were not developed in the South. Discuss carefully 
the causes of the growth of the cotton industry. What were some 
of the other important farm products of the South? Discuss the 
condition of agriculture in the West and in the northern Atlantic 
states. 

Explain how the growth in manufacturing and agriculture 
affected the commerce of the nation. Explain carefully how the 
growth of the West brought about conditions that made better 
means of transportation and communication very desirable. De- 
scribe carefully the effect that the invention of the steamboat 
had on transportation. Describe some other important improve- 
ments that were made in the means of transportation during this 
period. What were some of the more important inventions and 
discoveries made up to 1828? How do they compare with those 
that have been made since? 

(In connection with the questions on Social Conditions, each 
pupil should read the third number of Hart's "Source Readers in 
American History," pp. 1,142.) Discuss the changes which took 
place in the manners and customs of the people during the period 
of National Growth and European Interference. Describe the classes 
which existed in southern society during this time. Explain care- 
fully why there had been scarcely any changes in southern society 
since the Revolution. Explain how the growth of democratic 
ideas affected class distinctions in the North. Discuss the effect 
of the West on class distinctions in the East. Explain the relation 
of Jackson's election to the destruction of class distinctions. 
Explain carefully the changes which took place in the national 
government during this period. What kind of state governments 
did the western states have? How did the state governments 
of the East and West differ as to nature? What caused the state 
governments during this period to become more democratic? 
What changes in religious conditions occurred during this period? 
(In connection with the questions on Education each pupil should 
read the third number of Hart's "Source Readers in American 
History," pp. 317-371.) What was the condition of education 
in the United States from the close of the Revolution to about 1810? 
What was the cause of this? In wliat way was and is the public 
land directly related to the common school system? Describe 
the improvement that took place in the schools during the latter 
part of this period. Who were some of the more important 
American writers of this period? 



Questions and Topics 211 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the nature of the institutional changes that took place 
during this period. Discuss the growth and development of 
manufactures. Discuss the growth of agriculture. Discuss the 
growth of commerce, and the improvement in the means of trans- 
portation and communication. Discuss the changes in social 
conditions. Discuss the changes in government. Discuss the 
condition of education. 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

A POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Meaning of Jackson's Election 

D. 375-378 ; Mc. 301 , Ma. 268-273 ; T. 249-251 ; M. 
240-241 

II Political Methods 

1. Jlie Spoils System 

D. 378-379; Mc. 294-295; Ma. 273-274; G. 
206 ; T. 251-252 ; M. 241-242 

2. Party Organi::ations^ the Nominating Convention, 

and Campaigns 

D. 379-382; Mc. 306, 315-316; Ma. 274; T. 
275-276; M. 258-259 

III Political Parties 

1. The Democratic Party 

D. 382-383; Mc. 311, 312, 346, 352-353, 360- 
361 ; Ma. 268-271 ; T. 286, 306, 316, 322 

2. The Whig Party 

D. 383; Mc. 307, 312, 316, 334-335, 352; 
Ma. 268-271 ; T. 248, 306 

3. The Republican Party 

D. 384; Mc. 354-355, 363; Ma. 325-326; 
G. 305-306; T. 315-316, 322 

B FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

I. The Tariff 

1. The Tariff of 1828; Nullification and Secession 

D. 385-387; Mc. 303-305; Ma. 295-297; G. 
207-271; T. 247-248, 254-250; M. 245-249 



The Slazrry Question 213 

2. The Compromise Tariff of i8jj and the Walker 
Tariff of 1846 
D. 388; Mc. 305; Ma. 299; T. 256; M. 249 

II Destruction of the United States Bank 

D. 388-389; Mc. 305-308; Ma. 274-275; G. 271- 
272; T. 253-254; M. 245 

III The Panic oe 1837 

1. Bra of S peculation 

D. 389; Mc. 308-309; Ma. 275-270; T. 272; 
M. 253-254 

2. The Specie Circular 

D. 390 ; Mc. 309 ; G. 276-277 ; T. 272 

3. Distribution of the Surplus 

D. 391; Mc. 309-310; T. 270-271 

4. The Crisis 

D. 391; Mc. 310-311; G. 277; T. 272; M. 253 

IV The Independent or Sub-Treasury System 

D. 392; Mc. 311-312; Ma. 276-277; G. 278-279; T. 
273-274, 296; M. 254-255 



C GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

I The Oregon Territory 

D. 393-395 ; Ma. 238-240, 280, 283, 304-305 

II Annexation oe Texas, 1845 

D. 395-397 ; Mc. 320-322 ; Ma. 303-306 ; G. 290 ; T. 

284-287; M. 262 



214 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

III The Mexican War, 1846-1848 
Ma. 30G-314 

1. Causes 

D. 397; Mc. 32G ; G. 290-201; T. 289-390; 

M. 265-2GG 

2. Campaigns 

D. 398; Mc. 327-328; G. 291-292; T. 290- 
293; M. 2GG-2G8 

3. Results 

D. 398-401 ; Mc. 333-334 ; G. 292-293 ; T. 293 ; 
M. 2G9 



D THE SLAVERY QUESTION 

I The Abolition Movement 

1. Growth of Sentiment Against Slavery 

D. 402; Mc. 334-336, 343, 352, 357; Ma- 
299; G. 286-287; T. 270, 303, 308; M. 275- 
276, 283 

2. Rise of Abolitionists 

D. 403; Mc. 313; Ma. 299-300; T. 267- 
268 

3. Ant i- Abolition Sentiment 

D. 403; Mc. 313-314; Ma. 301; G. 287; 
T. 269 

4. The Gag Resolutions 

D. 404; Mc. 314-315; Ma. 301-302; G. 
287-289; T. 269 



The Slavery Oucsiion 215 

II Expansion of Slave Territory: The Compromise 

OE 1850 
D. 405-408; Mc. 337-343; Ma. 310-321; G. 294- 
299; T. 297-298, 301-303; M. 269-270, 273-274 

III The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854 

D. 408-409 ; Mc. 347 ; Ma. 321 ; G. 303-305 ; T. 309 ; 

M. 278-279 

IV The Struggle for Kansas, 1854-18(31 

D. 408-409 ; Mc. 347-352, 357-358 ; Ma. 322-325 ; T. 
313-314; M. 279-280 

V The Dred Scott Decision, 1857 

D. 409-410; Mc. 355-356; Ma. 326; G. 299-301, 
313 ; T. 316-318 ; M. 279-280 

VI The Lincoln-Douglas Debates, 1858 

D. 411; Mc. 358-359; Ma. 327-329 

VII The Election oe Lincoln, 1860; Secession, 1860- 

1861 
D. 412-414; Mc. 363, 378-382; Ma. 329-337; T. 
323-328; M. 286-290 



E INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
I Industrial Conditions 

D. 415; Mc. 285-291, 365-376; H. IV. 41-44; 
G. 306-310; T. 258-264, 281-282, 304-308, 310- 
312 ; M. 249-251, 257, 290-292 

1. Means of Transportation and Comninnication: 
Other Inventions 
D. 416-422; Mc. 285-291, 368-370, 372, 374-375; 
Ma. 285-294; G. 272-275, 282-284; T. 259-264; 
281, 308; M. 237-238, 249-250, 257 



216 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

2. Agriculture 

D. 422 ; Ma. 286-288 ; T. 310 

3. Manufactures and Mining 

D. 422; Mc. 289, 337-338, 370-374; Ala. 
288-290; T. 259, 263-264, 304, 320; M. 277, 
270-272, 284-285 

4. Coninicrcc and Cities 

D. 423-425; Mc. 374; T. 304 

II Social Conditions 

D. 425-427; H. IV. 1-74; Mc. 375; T. 265-267; M. 
239-240 

III Government 

D. 427-430 

IV Religion 

D. 430; Mc. 291-292; Ma. 283-284; T. 282-284; M. 
255-257 

V Education 

D. 430-432 ; Ma. 284-285 ; T. 265-266 ; M. 251-252 



WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

As has already been stated the characteristics of this period 
were the westward growth of the nation in population, wealth 
and territory, and the struggle over the extension of slavery 
into this western territory. During the preceding period the 
nation had thrown off its colonial traditions and had become 
independent of Europe in fact as well as in name. The nation 
had rid itself of European interference and the great question 
of slavery and other important domestic questions which had 
been gradually shaping themselves, now came to the front, and 
the life of the nation centered around them during this entire 
period. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Meaning of Jackson's Election 

The election of Jackson marks the beginning of a new 
epoch in the history of the United States. It marks the 
advance of democracy far beyond that of the time of Jef- 
ferson. To a considerable extent this was due to the de- 
velopment of the West. The new western states repre- 
sented the rising democracy — the belief that one man is as 
good as another, irrespective of his wealth or birth. All 
of the Presidents before Jackson, however, belonged to the 
wealthy, cultured, and aristocratic class. Jackson was 
one of the common people. His life had been an almost 
continuous struggle with poverty and adverse circum- 
stances. He was blunt in manner and speech, headstrong 
and independent. He typified the rough frontier life of 
the western states. His election marks the complete 
triumph of democracy in the United States. 

II Political Methods* 
1. The Spoils System 

The Spoils System consists in the giving of as many 
offices as possible to those who have helped elect sue- 



218 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

cessful candidates. Almost every ofificcr up to the 
President of the United States has the power of ap- 
pointing men and women to office. If the candidate 
elected be a Democrat he usually appoints Democrats to 
office ; if he be a Republican he usually appoints Repub- 
licans. It does not matter how faithfully an officer 
may have performed his duties, his position is usually 
given to some member of the successful party, and often 
the new officer is less competent than the one whose 
place he fills. As a result of this condition of afifairs, 
public business frequently suffers serious injury. 

Jackson was responsible for the introduction of the 
"Spoils System" into the politics of the United States. 
He claimed that rotation in office was democratic and a 
good thing; that to the victor belonged the spoils of 
office — that the successful candidate might fill the offices 
under his control with personal followers. During the 
first nine months of his administration, he removed 
more than one thousand men from office, whereas all of 
the preceding Presidents together had removed less than 
one hundred, and then only for good cause, and not on 
account of their political connections. Since Jackson's 
administration the officers of both parties have appoint- 
ed men and women to office because of their political 
influence. During the last twenty-five years the evil 
effects of this policy have been greatly lessened by the 
enactment of national legislation known as the Civil 
Service laws. These laws compel the President of the 
United States to select certain officials by means of ex- 
amination, and the officers thus selected cannot be re- 
moved except for just cause. 

2. Party Organizations, The Xoniinating Convention, 
and Campaigns 

Strong party organizations or "machines" had already 
been built up in many of the cities, and during Jack- 
son's administration the organization of national parties 
as they exist at the present time first came into existence. 



Political Methods and Political Parties 219 

It was at this time also that party platforms first came 
into use. 

Up to Jackson's second term the candidates for presi- 
dent and vice-president of the United States had always 
been nominated by a caucus of party leaders in Conj^ress 
or by state legislature. The growth of democratic ideas 
led the people to demand a more direct control of such 
nominations, and as a result the candidates for the presi- 
dency and vice-presidency in the campaign of 1832 were 
nominated by national party conventions composed of 
delegates elected by the people of the various states. 

Up to the beginning of this period comparatively little 
interest was taken in presidential elections by the people 
at large. The presidential electors were not nominated 
by, nor responsible to, any political party, and therefore 
the people had little partisan interest in their election, 
Under these circumstances the electors exercised a more 
or less independent choice. The growth of democracy, 
however, changed this. After the candidates for presi- 
dent and vice-president came to be nominated by na- 
tional party conventions, and the presidential electors in 
the various states came to be nominated by state party 
conventions, thus being practically pledged to vote for 
their party nominees, it became necessary to introduce 
new and active campaign methods in order to rouse the 
interest of the people and to win popular support for the 
candidates. Stump-speaking, torch-light processions, 
and spectacular displays of various kinds, such as would 
rouse enthusiasm among the people, were a part of this 
new order of things. This method of conducting a 
campaign has been continued to the present time, and 
is used in elections for public officers of all kinds. 

Ill Political Parties 

During Jackson's administration parties became thor- 
oughly re-organized. Jackson's followers were called 
Democrats and those opposed to his policy, under the lead- 



220 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

ership of Clay and Webster formed the National Repub- 
lican party, later calling- themselves Whigs. 

1. 71ie Democratic Party 

The Democratic party as organized in Jackson's time 
has never been broken up, although the leaders and 
issues have changed, and it has been and is at the 
present time a powerful party. The Democratic presi- 
dents during this period were Jackson, 1829-1837; Van 
Buren, 18:37-18^1 ; Polk, 1845-1849 ; Pierce, 1853-1857 ; 
and Buchanan, 1857-18G1. The first issue upon which 
the Democratic party took a stand was the National 
Bank which it succeeded in destroying. Later in this 
period slavery became the predominant issue, and the 
Democrats as a party were pro-slavery, though in the 
campaign of 18fi0 the party split on this issue. The 
most important work of the Democratic party during 
this period was the establishment of the Independent 
Treasury System, the Annexation of Texas, the inaugu- 
ration and management of the war with Mexico, the 
reduction of the tariff in 1846 to an almost free-trade 
basis, and the passage of the Kansas-Nebraska Act 
in 185.4. 

2. The Whig Party 

The general principles on which the Whig party was 
formed under the leadership of Clay and Webster were 
broad construction of the Constitution, internal im- 
provements by the aid of the National government and 
a protective tariff. The Whig party was the one great 
rival of the Democratic party between 1834 and 1852, 
and twice succeeded in gaining control of the National 
government — in the Harrison-Tyler administration, 
1841-1845, and in the Taylor-Fillmore administration, 
1849-1853. This party did not succeed in putting into 
effect any of its most important principles. While the 
Compromise of 1850 was a Whig measure, it was an 



Financial Legislation 221 

unfortunate measure for the party as it alienated many 
in the north where a large part of the Whigs' strength 
lay. The Whigs tried to avoid taking a definite stand 
on the slavery question and it was this attitude that 
caused their downfall early in the fifties. 

3. The Republican Party 

The development of the slavery issue caused changes 
in the Democratic party, the breaking up of the Whig 
party and the rise of several minor parties in the latter 
part of this period. The various elements of all these 
parties that were opposed to the extension of slavery 
united to form a new party which took the name Repub- 
lican. This party rapidly gained strength in the North, 
and in 1860 under the leadership of Lincoln first carried 
the National election. 



FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

[. The Tariff of 1828; NuUi-fication and Secession 

Just before the presidential election of 1S2S, Congress 
enacted a tariff law which, because of its high and ab- 
surd duties, is known as the "Tariff of Abominations." 
The tariff was bitterly denounced in the southern states. 
The North had developed large manufacturing interests 
which, it was claimed, needed a protective tariff for en- 
couragement. The South had remained entirely agri- 
cultural, and the southerners claimed that a high tariff 
was of no advantage to them, but rather a disadvantage 
as it tended to raise the price of those things which they 
had to buy, and did not raise the price of those things 
which they sold. Protests were made by the legisla- 
tures of several of the southern states. Calhoun, speak- 
ing for the South, drew up an "Exposition" setting forth 
the doctrine that the nation was a mere compact of 
sovereign states ; that a state could nullify a law of Con- 
gress which it judged to be oppressive and unconstitu- 



222 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

tional ; and that a state had the constitutional right to 
withdraw from the Union. The legislature of South 
Carolina, taking this view of the question, passed reso- 
lutions nullifying the tariff laws. Jackson, however, 
threatened to hang as traitors all who forcibly resisted 
the collection of tariff duties. His firm stand, together 
with a modification in the tariff, checked the secession 
movement. 

2. The Compromise Tariff of i8^^ and the IValker Tariff 
of 1846 

The strong opposition of the South to the "Tariff of 
Abominations" led to its modification in 1832 and in the 
following year to the passage of a Compromise tariff 
law which provided for the gradual reduction of tariff 
duties during a period of ten years until the low rates 
imposed by the tariff of 181G should be reached. 

The limit provided by the Compromise Tariff was 
reached in 1843. By that time the idea of free trade 
had gained strength and this brought about the passage 
of a new tariff law in 184G which made still further re- 
duction in the tariff rates, and changed the method of 
assessing duties. 

II DESTRUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES BaNK 

The United States Bank, chartered first in 1791 and re- 
chartered in 181G was the repository of government funds 
and agent for the government in the management of its 
financial affairs. The fact that this bank was under the 
general supervision of the national government gave it a 
certain stability, and the existence of such a bank tended 
to keep the financial affairs of the nation on a solid basis. 
Jackson, however, was strongly opposed to this bank, 
claiming that it had become a political machine and was an 
"un-American monopoly." Four years before its charter 
expired he accomplished its destruction by securing the 
withdrawal of all the national funds from the bank. 



Financial Legislation 223 

These funds he had placed in state banks. Through his 
influence Congress refused in 1836 to renew the bank's 
charter. 

Ill Thu Panic of 1837 
1. Bra of Speculation 

The distribution of the government deposits among 
state banks brought about the creation of a large num- 
ber of state banks which proceeded to issue paper money 
to an amount far in excess of the gokl and silver which 
they kept on hand for the purpose of redemption. A 
great deal of speculation was carried on at this time, 
owing to the opening up of the western country and to 
the advance in industrial conditions. The great amount 
of paper money issued increased this speculation by 
making it easy for the people to borrow money. 

3. The Specie Circular 

A large part of the money paid for government land 
was the paper currency of the state banks, and a large 
part of the national taxes was also paid in the same 
money. As the state banks had issued a great deal 
more currency than they had gold and silver with which 
to redeem it, the people who held this paper money 
could not exchange all of it or nearly all of it for gold 
and silver. This caused the people to look upon paper 
money with suspicion, and as a result a dollar of it be- 
came of less value than a dollar of gold or silver. Jack- 
son saw that the government could not continue to ac- 
cept this paper money for the payment of taxes, because 
it would result in a loss to the government as it was of 
less value than gold or silver. He therefore issued an 
order that all United States taxes must be paid in gold 
or silver, and that the payments for public land must 
be made in the same money. This order of Jackson's 
is known as the Specie Circular because it provided that 
all payments made to the government by its citizens 



224 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

must be made in specie — that is, in gold or silver. This 
circular of Jackson's caused the people to become still 
more suspicious of the paper money issued by the state 
banks, and caused this money to become of still less 
value. 

3. Distribution of the Surplus 

By the middle of 1S36 all the national debt had been 
paid and a surplus of over $40,000,000 had accumulated 
and had been placed in the state banks. Congress 
passed a bill providing for the distribution of this sur- 
plus by installments among the various states as loans. 
This distribution made necessary the removal of the 
government deposits from many of the state banks, thus 
greatly reducing their supply of hard money. This, 
together with the Specie Circular, caused paper money 
to become almost worthless. 

4. The Crisis 

The Specie Circular caused men to take their paper 
money to the banks at once and ask for gold and silver 
in return. Tkit the banks had not the gold and silver 
with which to redeem it, for, as has been stated, many of 
them had issued a far larger quantity of paper money 
than they could redeem even with the government funds 
which they had on deposit, and the sudden removal of 
these government deposits made their condition still 
worse. As a result they were compelled to close their 
doors. Paper money, being thus discredited, declined 
rapidly in value ; specie payments were everywhere sus- 
pended ; hundreds of business firms failed ; thousands of 
men and women lost ever}thing they had possessed ; 
factories were forced to suspend operation ; and thus 
financial panic swept over the nation. 

IV Tiiii Independent or Sub-Treasury System 

President Van Buren, in order to protect the national 
government, induced Congress to pass what is known as 



Growth of the Nation in Territory and Population 225 

the Independent Treasury Act." By the terms of this act 
the United States was enabled to erect in the various states 
such government buildings as should be required in which 
to deposit the public money of the nation. This system, 
commonly known as the Sub-Treasury System, still exists 
and has proven very satisfactory. 

GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

I The Oregon Territory 

The territory on the Pacific Coast between the forty- 
second parallel and the parallel of 54° 40' was called 
Oregon, and was claimed by both England and the United 
States. Both nations sent settlers into this territory and 
held it jointly. The large immigration of Americans into 
Oregon made the United States anxious to settle the north- 
ern boundary definitely and to acquire as much of this ter- 
ritory as possible. In order to make the North willing to 
admit Texas into the Union, the Democrats took up the 
acquisition of this entire territory, and made it, together 
with the annexation of Texas, the issue in the election of 
1844. According to their promise, after the annexation 
of Texas, the Oregon matter was taken up and the present 
boundary line was agreed upon with England. 

II Annexation oe Texas, 1845 

By the treaty of 1819 the United States ceded to Spain 
its claim to Texas, and when Mexico became independent 
of Spain two years later, Texas was included in the new 
Republic of Mexico. The Mexican government was very 
liberal in granting tracts of land to settlers in this territory, 
and Americans in great numbers — especially from the 
South — took advantage of this policy and settled in Texas, 
During Jackson's administration offers were made to Mex- 
ico for the purchase of Texas but were refused. Mean- 
while colonization went on steadily with the definite pur- 

16 



226 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

pose on the part of the southern leaders of the ultimate 
annexation of Texas to the United States in order to se- 
sure a A'aluable area for the expansion of slavery. When 
the American settlers became stroui^ enou.c^h they rebelled 
against Mexico and in a few battles defeated the Mexican 
army. They then, in 183G, established the Republic of 
Texas, though Mexico did not recognize its independence. 
The next step — annexation — was strongly opposed by the 
northern states because of slavery which existed and 
would surely expand there. However, in 1815 Texas was 
admitted to the Union, and thus the slave area was greatly 
enlarged. The western boundary of this new territory 
was undecided, and the United States sent troops to en- 
force its claims, thus virtually forcing war upon Mexico.- 

Ill TiiK M]-xiCAN War, 1840-1848 

1. Causes 

The causes of this war w^ere the desire on the part of 
the South for more slave territory which led to the 
annexation of Texas, and the occupation by United 
States troops of territory on the Rio Grande claimed by 
Mexico. 

2. Campaigns 

This war was a series of successes for the American 
army. There were but two campaigns — one under 
Taylor on. the Rio Grande, and another under Scott, 
who captured Santa Cruz and then marched upon and 
captured the City of IMexico. 

3. Results 

The territorial result of this war was the acquisition 
by the United States of the territory including Cali- 
fornia, Nevada, I-tah, Arizona, New Mexico and part 
of Colorado. The United States paid Mexico $18,000,- 
000 for this territory. 

The w'ar re-opened and extended the slavery question, 
and its political results, therefore, were of the utmost 



TJie Slavery Question S2'? 

importance. Representative Wilmot of Pennsylvania 
proposed an amendment knov^n as the "Wilmot Pro- 
viso" to a bill pending- in Congress. This proviso rep- 
resented the position of the North regarding slavery in 
the territory secured from Mexico, and declared that 
slavery should not exist in any of this territory. It 
failed to pass Congress, but its discussion throughout 
the country tended to create a still stronger feeling be- 
tween the North and the South on the slavery question. 

THE vSLAVERY QUESTION 
I TiiK Abolition Movement 

1. Growth of Sentiment Against Slavery 

Industrial conditions in the North led to the gradual 
abolition of slavery. Still more slowly a moral senti- 
ment against it had grown up, and by the close of the 
War of 1812 the two interests — industrial and moral — 
had brought about abolition of slavery in all the New 
England and middle states save Delaware, and the pro- 
hibition of slavery in the Northwest Territory. In the 
South, on the other hand, slavery had become still more 
firmly entrenched in the industrial and social life. The 
growth of the strength of slavery in the South was 
shown plainly in the ^Missouri Compromise. For four- 
teen years after this Compromise there was a lull in the 
agitation on the question of slavery, but the abolitionists 
then brought it forcibly to public attention. 

2. Rise of Abolitionists 

The number of people actually opposed to slavery on 
moral grounds was very small up to 1S31. At that 
time an abolition paper called "The Liberator" was 
started by William Lloyd Garrison, and abolition socie- 
ties were formed throughout the North. The Abso- 
litionists advocated the immediate freeing of the slaves, 
and circulated pamphlets, papers and magazines 
throughout the United States, setting forth their doc- 



228 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

trines. Although the Abolitionists were very active, the 
number of people in the North who wished to interfere 
with slavery in the Southern states, increased very slow- 
ly, and was not lars^e before the bei^inning of the Civil 
War. 

3. Anti-Abolition Sentiment 

The slaver-holders were enraged by the activity of the 
Abolitionists, and were driven into defending slavery on 
both moral and constitutional grounds. They insisted 
that the Abolitionists encouraged slave insurrection, and 
that they slTould be suppressed by force. In the North 
also the feeling against the Abolitionists was strong. 
Their meetings were broken up by mobs ; their printing 
presses were destroyed ; their leaders were threatened 
with death, this being actually inflicted in one case. As 
the Abolitionists did not cease their work, but continued 
even more actively, much of their anti-slavery literature 
was taken from the mail by mobs, and burned. A bill 
was even introduced into Congress, with the full ap- 
proval of President Jackson, to prohibit the sending of 
such "incendiary publications" through the mail. 
Though this bill failed of passage after warm debate, it 
showed the strength of the feeling that prompted it. 

4. The Gag Resolutions 

Anti-slavery agitators sent in large numbers of pe- 
titions to Congress concerning slavery. At first these 
petitions were received but rarely ever debated. In 
183G, however, the southerners secured in the House 
of Representatives the passage of a resolution that all 
petitions relating in any way to slavery should not be 
received. This was fittingly called the "Gag Resolu- 
tion." John Quincy Adams, then an old man, and a 
member of the House of Representatives, labored faith- 
fully against this violation of the right of petition, but 
the resolution passed after long and angry debates, and 
remained in force about eight years. This refusal on 



The Slavery Question 229 

the part of the House of Representatives to receive pe- 
titions from the people was a violation of the Constitu- 
tion of the United States. It v^-as the violation of a 
right held especially dear by English-speaking people, 
because it was one of those rights which had cost them 
centuries of bloodshed and struggle to secure. The 
great mass of the northern people had little use for the 
Abolitionists, but they denounced severely the attempt 
to interfere with the right of petition. This action 
therefore tended to create a strong feeling in the North 
against the attitude of the South on the slavery ques- 
tion, and the action of the few Abolitionists united the 
South in strong opposition to the North. 

II Expansion oi^ Slave Terkitoky : The Compromise oE 
1850 

The addition of the vast territory secured from Mexico 
to the United States opened up a great area for the ex- 
pansion of slavery, and the rapid settling of this newly ac- 
quired territory brought the whole question of slavery 
forcibly before the people. The discovery of gold in Cal- 
ifornia in 1848 led to the rapid settlement of that territory 
and in 1849 the inhabitants of California formed a consti- 
tution and applied for admission as a free state. During 
the discussion that followed, the feeling became so bitter 
in the North and in the South that threats of disunion 
were openly made in both sections. Demands were made 
by both the North and the South. The South demanded 
the right to take slavery into any territory of the United 
States and the passage of a strict fugitive slave law. The 
free states demanded that slavery should not be allowed to 
go into any new states, or territories, and that it should 
be abolished in the District of Columbia. The two sec- 
tions were also diametrically opposed on the question of 
the admission of California as a free state. Webster and 
Clay, alarmed as to the outcome, introduced and urged 
compromise measures. These measures are known as the 
Compromise of 1850, and the essential points were : 



L>:iO WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

(1) California was to be admitted as a free state, while 
Utah and New Mexico were to be organized as territories 
without any provision as to slavery. This practically nul- 
lified the Missouri Compromise, for while that measure 
was passed to settle the slavery question in the Louisiana 
territory, it was but natur:il that the parallel of 3G° .30' 
should be considered as extendiui;- with the acquisition of 
new territory, as the boundary line between free and slave 
territory. 

(2) The slave trade was to be prohibited in the Dis- 
trict of Columbia. 

(3) A strict fugitive slave law should be passed by 
Congress. 

After violent discussion this compromise was adopted. 
W'hile, as in the case of the Missouri Compromise, many 
thought that the slavery question was now settled, the 
Compromise of ISoO was but a temporary measure, and 
secured luerely a short lull in the slavery agitation. 

Ill Till-; Kansas-Nkhraska Biij,, 1854 

The I'ugitive Slave Law, which was part of the Com- 
promise of 1850, was energetically made use of by the 
slave owners of the South, and this served to create a 
more intense feeling against slavery in the North. "Uncle 
Tom's Cabin," though an unjust representation of the 
slavery system, was a powerful instrument in intensifying 
this feeling. Under these conditions the Democrats 
elected Pierce to the Presidency, and secured control of 
both Houses of Congress. The leaders of both parties 
were anxious to let the slavery question rest, but Senator 
Douglas introduced a bill, known as the Kansas-Nebraska 
Dill, which provided for the organization of Kansas and 
Nebraska into territories, and which expressly stated that 
the question of slavery should be left to the people of these 
territories. As Kansas and Nebraska were both entirely 
north of 30° 30', this was a direct violation of the Missouri 
Compromise, and the bill was strongly opposed on that 



The Slavery Question 231 

account by the Free-soilcrs. The bill as iinally passed, 
however, provided expressly for the repeal of the Missouri 
Compromise and thus re-opened the slavery question in 
all this western territory. 

IV Struggle; for Kansas, 1854-1861 

As soon as the Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed, a long, 
severe struggle for Kansas began. Since this territory 
would be free or slave as the settlers should decide, both 
the North and the South hurried in settlers in order to se- 
cure a majority of voters. In addition to the actual set- 
tlers a large number of men came into Kansas from Mis- 
souri temporarily for the specific purpose of carrying the 
election for slavery by force and fraud. By illegal 
methods they succeeded in electing a wholly pro-slavery 
legislature. As the free-state settlers had not been al- 
lowed to vote, they formed a government of their own and 
asked for admission to the Union. The struggle which 
followed was a bloody one and lasted until 1861, when it 
was settled by the admission of Kansas to the Union as a 
free state. 

V The Drkl) Scott Decision, 1857 

Dred Scott was a slave taken by his master from ]\Iis- 
souri into the free state of Illinois, and then into territory, 
which by the Missouri Compromise was to be forever free. 
On his return to ]\Iissouri he sued for his freedom on the 
ground that slavery could not exist on free soil, and there- 
fore his residence in the free North had made him free. 
The Supreme Court of the United States held that a slave 
was not a citizen, but property, and therefore had no rights 
in the courts. This meant that neither the Congress of the 
United States nor the legislature of a state or territory 
could interfere with slavery. It meant that slavery could 
exist in all the northern states and in all the western terri- 
torv. This decision still further embittered the North. 



232 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

\'I LiNCOLN-DoUGI.AS DlvBATKS, 1858 

In 1858 Stephen A. Douglas, a leading Democrat, was a 
candidate for re-election to the United States Senate from 
the state of Illinois. Abraham Lincoln was the Repub- 
lican candidate, and a series of debates between the two 
men was held in various towns of Illinois during the cam- 
paign. In these debates the principles of "squatter sov- 
ereignty," the Dred Scott decision, and other phases of 
the expansion of slavery were ably discussed. While the 
Democratic candidate won the election, the debates served 
to bring Lincoln into national prominence, and to put the 
issues on slavery forcibly before the people. Some of the 
admissions forced from Douglas concerning the control 
of slavery by Congress, alienated the extreme Southern 
Democratic party in the following presidential election. 

VII Eli'XTion 01" Lincoln^ ISGO 

Lincoln's position on the slave question was made plain 
in the Lincoln-Douglas debates, in which he declared that 
he was emphatically opposed to the extension of slavery, 
and that the nation must in time become all slave or all 
free. The majority of the people in the North agreed 
with him. While the Republican party disclaimed any in- 
tention of interfering with slavery in the states where it 
existed, the South recognized that the election of Lincoln 
to the presidency meant that slavery would not be further 
extended and therefore considered it necessary, in order to 
preserve the institution of slavery, to withdraw from the 
Union. This withdrawal marks the beginning of the 
Civil War. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

During the period from 1828 to 18()0 there was a marked de- 
velopment in the United States along institutional lines. This 
statement, however, applies more especially to the North and 
West, for in many ways institutional life in the South remained 



Institutional Life 233 

almost stationary. The growth and apphcation of hberal 
democratic ideas had an important effect on county, state and 
national government. There was great development in the 
North and West along industrial lines, and a marked growth 
in social, religious and educational matters. The South did 
not have her share in this general advancement, for slavery 
caused her to remain almost strictly agricultural, and thus her 
institutional life was becoming more and more unlike that of 
the rest of the nation. Events were soon to prove that these 
diverging lines of growth could not be brought together peace- 
ably. 

I Industrial Conditions 

This period was one of wonderful industrial advance- 
ment for the nation as a whole. Foreign immigration, im- 
portant inventions, improvements in machinery of all 
kinds, and the marked improvement in transportation and 
communication with the consequent opening up of the 
country, were all factors in this industrial advance, and re- 
sulted in the building up of great manufacturing and com- 
mercial interests, the building of cities, and the develop- 
ment of new industries. White labor was unable to com- 
pete with slave labor, consequently not only foreign im- 
migrants passed by the slave holding states and went into 
the North and Northwest, but a large number of the white 
laborers whose homes w^ere in the South left their old 
homes and went North where free labor prevailed. Free 
labor is necessary for advancement along commercial and 
manufacturing lines, and hence the South was shut out 
from developing its immense natural resources along these 
lines and was kept at almost a standstill industrially. The 
northern free states in 18(50 outnumbered the southern 
slave holding states in white population by about 
10,000,000, or more than two to one. Since agriculture 
tends to scatter population, and manufacturing and com- 
merce tend to centralize it, many cities sprang up in the 
North but very few in the South. 



234 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVI-.RY 

1. Means of Trans [^ortation and Continunicalion: Oilier 

Inventions 

The first railroad was built in the first years of this 
period and by 1860 there were about 30,000 miles of 
railways in operation in the United States. This 
enormous growth had a most important effect on in- 
dustrial conditions. It opened up large areas of new 
country to trade and greatly cheapened the cost of 
transportation, thus making many industrial changes. 
During this period street horse-cars were first put into 
use in the cities. In ISM the first telegraph line in the 
W'orld was constructed and by 1S()0 telegraph lines w'cre 
in operation throughout settled parts of the country. 
The telegraph and the steam railway have done more 
to do away wnth sectionalism than any other influence, 
for they have brought all parts of the country into close 
contact, and thus have made for the unity of the nation. 

2. Agricnltnre 

Agriculture continued to be the one great industry of 
the South. The great demand for cotton by the north- 
ern and the English manufacturers caused cotton to be- 
come the chief southern product. In the northern and 
northwestern states large amounts of food-stuff's, par- 
ticularly wheat and corn were raised and great quanti- 
ties were exported. 

3. Manufactures and Mining 

The manufacturing interests which had their rise in 
the preceding period increased wonderfully during this 
period. The many new inventions, including the reaper, 
the sewing machine, improvements in agricultural and 
household implements as well as in machinery for fac- 
tories, and the extensive use of steam engines of various 
kinds were a part of, and were stimulating to, the great 
advance in manufactures. By 1800 the value of the 
manufacturing industries had reached several thousand 



Institutional Life 235 

millions, and more than a million people were given em- 
ployment in the factories. 

Great progress was made during this period in the de- 
velopment of the iron industry. This was due largely 
to the increased demand caused by the building of rail- 
roads, bridges, and machinery of all kinds. Pennsyl- 
vania was the center of the iron industry. Coal at this 
time first began to be used as a fuel in place of wood, 
and this caused the development of coal mines. The 
mining of gold and silver and other minerals began to be 
carried on in the western states during the latter part 
of this period. The real development of the mineral 
resources of the country, however, took place in the 
period following the Civil War. 

4. Commerce and Cities 

While an important commerce, both domestic and 
foreign, had been built up in the preceding period, it 
was now greatly improved and extended. This was 
due largely to the improved methods of transportation 
together with the growth of manufactures. By the end 
of this period American domestic and foreign commerce 
combined had become greater than that of any other 
nation. The rapid growth of commerce and manufac- 
tures was closely related to the rapid growth of cities. 

IT Social Conditions 

Socially, as well as industrially, the South was at a 
standstill. Class distinctions remained about the same. 
The new democracy which was leveling all classes in the 
North and West exerted but little influence here. Class 
privileges had largely disappeared in the northern and 
western sections of the country during the preceding 
period. It was at this time that great improvements in the 
conditions of the working classes began to be made in the 
way of better modes of living, higher wages and shorter 
hours. 



236 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

III GoVliRNMKNT 

As has already been stated, the p^rowth and application 
of liberal democratic ideas during this period, had a 
marked effect on government in the United States. This 
is indicated by the election of Jackson, and the origin of 
national nominating conventions. Especially was this 
shown in the many new constitutions formed by new and 
old states during this time, in which the powers of the 
governors and legislatures were in many cases limited. 

The judicial department was also brought more under 
popular control by changes in the method of selecting 
judges. In many cases where the judicial officers had been 
appointed for terms lasting during good behavior, they 
were now elected by the people for comparatively short 
terms. The town and county governments were made 
more democratic, particularly in the new western states, 
by the enlarging of the number of officers elected directlv 
by the people. JMunicipal government now first became 
important, for before this time both the numlier and size, 
of the cities were small. As in the case of the state and 
county governments, the government of the cities was 
very democratic. 

IV Rkligion 

About 1830 a great wave of religious enthusiasm to- 
gether with a general reforming spirit swept over the 
whole nation, and resulted in the rapid growth of church 
organizations, especially of the Evangelical sects. In the 
latter part of this period, slavery caused a division in some 
of these churches and different branches were formed, 
such as North and South Methodists. The Mormon 
church had its rise at this time, and the persecution of its 
members on account of their doctrines led to its migration 
into the West, where it formed a sort of state of its own. 

V Education 

This was a period of mental awakening and intellec- 
tual advance in many directions. The public school sys- 



Institutional Life 237 

tern continued to grow with the country. High schools, 
academies, and colleges made a distinct advance in all 
parts of the Union. Thousands of newspapers and maga- 
zines were published, and some of our best American 
authors, including Longfellow, Whittier, Holmes, Bryant 
and Lowell among the poets, and Bancroft, Parkman, Mot- 
ley and Prescott among the historians, wrote at this time. 
Henry Ward Beecher, Hawthorne and Wendell Phillips 
also belonged to this period. It is noticeable that most of 
this advance along educational lines took place in the non- 
slaveholdins: states. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Over what part of American history docs the period of National 
Growth and European Interference extend? What were the main 
features or characteristics of this period? Over what part of 
American history does the period of Westward Expansion and 
Slavery extend? What were the main features or characteristics 
of this period? Explain carefully tlic relation between tlic main 
features of these two periods. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Describe some of the main results which the growth of liberal 
democratic ideas brought about during the period of National 
Growth and European Interference. Explain how the first six 
Presidents of the United States represented the upper or aristo- 
cratic class of society. For how long did these men control the 
national government? To what class did both Washington and 
Jefferson believe the higher officials of tlie national government 
should belong? What were their ideas as to who should vote? 
Explain carefully in what v/ay the election of Jackson was con- 
trary to the ideas of Washington and Jefferson. Discuss the 
character of Jackson, and siiow how his election marks the com- 
plete triumph of democracy in the United States. E.xplain care- 
fully the difference between the democracy of Jefferson and the 
democracy of Jackson. (This question deserves the most careful 
consideration.) 

Upon what basis were men appointed to office under the national 
government before Jackson was elected President? Give a careful 
explanation of the Spoils System. When, by whom, and why was 
this system introduced into national politics? Discuss the evil 
effects of the Spoils System. How has Congress in recent years 
tried to overcome the evil effects of this system? 

What is a presidential elector? How is the number of presi- 
dential electors to which each state is entitled, determined? Why 
did those wlio framed tlie Constitution desire that the President 
should be elected by electors instead of directly by the people? 
Give a careful explanation of how the electors were chosen during 
the early history of the nation under the Constitution. Explain 
how this affected the interest which the people took in the election 
of the President. Explain how the growth of democratic ideas 
affected the manner of electing electors. How did this affect the 



Questions and Topics 239 

interest which the people took in the presidential election of 1824 
and the one of 1828? 

Before the presidential campaign of 1832 how were the can- 
didates for President and Vice-President nominated? How were 
they nominated in the campaign of 1832? What is the object 
and the composition of national nominating conventions? What 
was the origin and what is the nature of national political plat- 
forms? Explain carefully how the complete state and national 
organization of political parties gave the people control of, and 
increased their interest in, presidential elections. Give a full 
explanation of the nature and object of the campaign methods 
which the complete organization of political parties brought about. 

Why, in what way, and when did the Republican party break 
up? What nev/ parties were formed during this period, and when 
were they formed? Who were the Democratic Presidents during 
this period, and over what years did the term or terms of each 
extend? Explain the principles of the Democratic party. What 
was some of its most important work? Who were the Whig 
Presidents, and over what years did the term of each extend? 
Discuss the principles of the Whig party. Explain why these 
principles were not carried out when this party was in power. 
What effect did this have on the party? What caused the 
organization of the Republican party, and what was therefore one 
of the main principles of this party? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 
Compare, by a discussion, the main features or characteristics 
of the period of National Growth and European Interference with 
the main features or characteristics of the period of Westward 
Expansion and Slavery. Give a careful discussion of the meaning 
of Jackson's election. Discuss the Spoils System, including its 
origin, development, and effect. Give a careful discussion of this 
subject, — manner of electing presidential electors, including the 
effect of the change in the manner of electing. Discuss the origin 
and result of national nominating conventions, platforms, and 
campaigns. Discuss the reorganization of political parties during 
Jackson's first administration. Discuss the principles and impor- 
tant measures of the Democratic party during this period. Discuss 
the principles of the Whig party and the cause of its fall. Discuss 
the origin of the Republican party. 

FINANCIAL LEGISLATION: THE TARIFF 

Questions for Class Recitations 
Explain why the tariff of 1828 is known as the Tariff of Abomi- 
nations. Explain carefully how this tariff came to be passed. 



240 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

Why had the South become opposed to the protective principle 
of the tariff? How was the tariff of 1828 received in tlie South? 
Compare the doctrine stated in the Exposition and Protest of 
South Carolina with the doctrine stated in the Virginia and Ken- 
tucky Resolutions, and in the Hartford convention. In what way 
had Calhoun changed his views on these questions? What do you 
think caused him to do this? What is meant by the right of 
nullification? Describe carefully the trouble which the national 
government had with South Carolina over the question of the 
tariff. What were the terms of the compromise tariff of 1832? 
What other changes were made in the tariff during this period? 

When was the first and the second charter of the United States 
Bank granted, and when did each of these charters expire? What 
is meant by a monopoly? Explain why Jackson was opposed to 
the United States Bank. Explain the way in which this bank 
became the main issue in the presidential campaign of 1832. Ex- 
plain how Jackson succeeded in destroying the United States Bank. 
Explain carefully how the destruction of the United States Bank 
caused the organization of manj' state banks. What led to the 
issuing of large sums of paper money? What is hard money? Why 
was this paper money not so good as hard money? Explain the 
meaning of speculation. Explain carefully how the distribution 
of the government funds among the state banks, and the making 
of paper money by these banks, led to a great deal of speculation 
at this time. What first caused the paper moncj^ that was issued 
by the state banks to become of less value than gold or silver? 
What is meant by specie? What is meant by specie payment? 
Explain carefully why Jackson issued his specie circular. How did 
this circular cause paper money to become of still less value? 

Describe the conditions that caused a surplus of forty million 
dollars to accumulate to the credit of the United States during 
the years 1835 and 1836. What was done with this surplus? Ex- 
plain carefully how the distribution of the surplus to the various 
states caused the value of paper money to become still less. When 
the paper money became almost worthless, how was business 
affected? What is the condition of business when a financial panic 
is said to exist? Describe the condition of business during the 
financial panic of 1837. Describe the Independent or Subtreasury 
System. How did the panic of 1837 lead to the establishment of 
this system? 

QUESTIONS FOR Compositions and Examinations 

Give a full discussion of the tariff of 1828 and the trouble which 
the national government had with South Carolina over this tariff. 
Give a full discussion of the United States Bank, showing clearly 



Questions and Topics 241 

how its destruction led to the financial panic of 1837. Discuss the 
Independent Treasury System. 

GROWTH OF THE NATION IN TERRITORY AND 
POPULATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What were the boundaries of the United States at the close of 
the Revolution? Describe the increase in the territory of the 
United States between the Revolution and 1820. Explain carefully 
the importance to the United States of the territory secured during 
this time. Why were Jefferson and other leading Americans 
anxious to secure the Oregon country, and why was the territory 
of special value to the United States? Explain events leading to 
the final settlement of the Oregon question, and the terms of 
the treaty'that settled this question. 

What conditions caused the South to desire to secure more 
slave territory? Describe the settlement of Texas by the Ameri- 
cans. Was there anything unusual about this advance of the 
Americans into Texas? Explain carefully how Texas became 
independent of Mexico. Why was the South strongly in favor 
of annexing Texas, and why was the North opposed to this? 
Explain how the annexation of Texas and the Oregon question 
became important issues in the presidential campaign of 1844. 
Explain how the annexation of Texas brought on the Mexican 
War. Do you think the United States was justified in beginning 
this war? Give reasons for your answer. Briefly describe General 
Taylor's campaign. Briefly describe General Scott's campaign. 
Give the time, place, and explain the terms of the treaty that 
ended the war with Mexico. How was additional territory secured 
from Mexico in 1853? 

Explain carefully how the United States secured all the territory 
which it secured from the beginning of the American Revolution 
to the beginning of the Civil War. Explain the value to the 
United States of each addition in territory. How did the growth 
of the United States in population during the period of Westward 
Expansion and Slavery compare with its growth in territory? 
What states were formed in the great central plain during this 
period? Discuss the growth in population of the Oregon Territory. 
Discuss the growth of California and its admission to the Union. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Discuss the entire controversy between England and the United 
States over the Oregon Territory. Discuss the conditions and 



242 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

events which led to the annexation of Texas. Discuss the causes, 
campaigns, and results of the war with Mexico. Discuss quite 
fully the growth of the United States in territory and population, 
including the importance of this growth. 

THE SLAVERY QUESTION 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain why the question of slavery during this period would 
be related naturally to the growth of the nation in territory. To 
what extent did the Missouri Compromise settle the question of 
slavery? Describe the gradual abolition of slavery in the northern 
states, and explain carefully the reasons for this. What was the 
feeling in the South toward slavery from about the close of the 
Revolution to 1800? W^hat was the cause of this feeling?. Explain 
carefully the conditions which caused the South, after about 1800, 
to become more and more in favor of slavery, and which caused 
slavery to become more and more firmly rooted in southern 
industrial, social, and political life. 

What is meant by abolition and Abolitionists as related to the 
slavery question? Describe the growth of the abolition sentiment 
in the North, and explain the attitude of the Abolitionists toward 
slavery. On what grounds did the Abolitionists force the South 
to defend slavery? Describe fully how the people in the South 
and most of those in the North treated the Abolitionists. Why 
did the Abolitionists send petitions to Congress? Explain the 
attitude of the southern members of Congress and of many of the 
northern members toward these petitions against slavery. Explain 
what is meant by the Gag Resolutions. In what way did these 
resolutions violate the Constitution of the United States? What 
effect did these resolutions have on the people of the North? 
What effect did the slavery petitions and their discussion in 
Congress and by the press have on the people of the South? 

Explain very fully why the South was very much opposed to 
the admission of California as a free state. Why was the North 
strongly in favor of admitting California into the Union as a free 
state? In what way was the question of slavery in relation to the 
territory secured from IMexico first brought up for discussion in 
Congress? Explain the conditions that caused Clay and Webster 
to submit and urge the adoption of the Compromise of 1850. 
Explain each provision of this compromise, and the effect or bear- 
ing of each of these provisions on the slavery question. 

What was "Uncle Tom's Cabin," and what was its effect on 
the slavery question? In what way did the Fugitive Slave Law 
and the strong attempt of the South to enforce it affect the slavery 



Questions and Topics 243 

question? Explain carefully what was meant by the doctrine of 
Popular or Squatter Sovereignty. Who was the author of this 
doctrine? How did it afifect the question of slavery in all the 
western territory? Explain the provisions of the Kansas-Nebraska 
l.ill. Explain fully how the doctrine of popular sovereignty as 
applied in the Kansas-Nebraska bill affected the settlement of 
Kansas. How did the struggle in Kansas inllucnce the people of 
both the North and the South in regard to the slavery question? 
What were the conditions that led to the Dred Scott Decision? 
State clearly the principles of this decision, and explain carefully 
what would have been their efifect on slavery if they had been fully 
carried out. What general effect did the Dred Scott Decision 
and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill have on the people of the North? 

Discuss the conditions that led to the Lincoln-Douglas Debates. 
Explain the main- phases of the slavery question that were dis- 
cussed in these debates. Explain the attitude of both Lincoln and 
Douglas on these questions. What efifect did these debates have 
on the people of the nation? What efifect did they have on the 
future of Lincoln and Douglas in connection with the presidential 
campaign of ISGO? Tell why the election of Lincoln caused some 
of the southern states to secede. 

Explain very fully how the topography, climate, and soil of the 
eastern part of the United States caused slavery to be abolished 
in the North and not to be abolished in the South. Explain how 
the invention of improved weaving machinery and the cotton gin 
affected the growth of slavery in the South. 1 o what extent was 
the difference in the topography, climate, and soil of the North 
and South the real or fundamental cause of the American Civil 
War? In your opinion, what would have been the result, so far 
as slavery is concerned, if the colonists who settled in the South 
had settled in the North, and those who settled in the North had 
settled in the South? What general effect was slavery having on 
industrial conditions in the South? If slavery had been quietly 
restricted to the cotton-raising states and the border slave states, 
and if the question of slavery had not become an important issue 
between the North and South, what do you think would have 
finally been the fate of slavery in the southern states? 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 
Discuss the conditions affecting the growth of slavery. Discuss 
the rise of the Abolitionists, and the effect of their work on the 
slavery question. Discuss the Gag Resolutions and their effect 
on the slavery question. Discuss the conditions which led to the 
Compromise of 1850, and the provisions and results of this com- 
promise. Discuss the Kansas-Nebraska bill and its efifect on the 
slavery question. Discuss the Dred Scott Decision. Discuss the 



244 WESTWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

Lincoln-Douglas Debates, including in this discussion the con- 
ditions which led to these debates, the principles discussed in 
them, and their results on the future of slavery. Beginning with 
the difference between the topography, climate, and soil of the 
North and South, give a careful discussion of the causes which 
led to the American Civil War. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the nature of the growth along institutional lines 
during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? What 
were the conditions or factors which cnuscd this growth? Com- 
pare the industrial growth of the South witli that of the North 
and Northwest. Explain carefully what caused this difference. 
Compare the North and South with regard to population and 
cities, and give the causes for the difference which existed between 
the two sections in these respects. 

Review briefly the improvement in means of transportation and 
communication that was made during the period of National 
Growth and European Interference. Explain fully what might 
have been the effect on the nation if the railroad and the telegraph 
had not been invented. Explain why the nation is smaller to-day 
for purposes of business and government tiian was the state of 
New York or the state of Pennsylvania before the railroad and 
telegraph came into use. In what way did the railroad help to 
settle up the country? Explain carefully how the railroads helped 
the growth of the feeling of national unity. Discuss what the 
results would be today if all the railroads and all telegraph lines 
were destroyed. 

Describe the origin of railroads in the United States and the 
character of those first built. Describe the growth of railroads 
in the United States up to 1860. Describe the origin of the tele- 
graph and the growth of telegraph lines in the United States up 
to 1860. Describe the origin of the trans-Atlantic cable. Explain 
carefully the value of the telegraph. 

Describe briefly the growth of inventions in the United States 
from 1790 to 1860. Name some of the more important inventions 
made during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. De- 
scribe the origin of the sewing machine, and explain its importance 
to industrial conditions. Describe the origin of the reaper and the 
threshing machine, and explain their importance to industrial con- 
ditions. Describe carefully some of the other inventions and dis- 
coveries made during this period, and explain the value of each. In- 
dicate in a general way the value to mankind of all these inventions 
and discoveries. 



Questions and Topics 245 

Describe the condition of agriculture in tlie different sections 
of the country. Explain carefully how the invention of new 
machinery affected the growth of agriculture. What can you say 
about the development of the great mineral resources of the 
nation? Explain how the invention of new machinery affected 
the growth of manufactures. What was the condition of the manu- 
facturing industry in 1860? How did its condition then compare 
with its condition to-day? Explain how the growth of agriculture 
and manufactures afifected the growth of commerce. What was 
the condition of American commerce in 1860, and how does its 
condition now compare with its condition then? What was the 
condition of the American shipping industry at that time, and 
how does its condition now compare with its condition then? Ex- 
plain carefully the effect of agriculture, manufacture, and com- 
merce on the growth of cities. Show plainly how the growth of 
cities in the North and South during this period illustrates this 
principle. In what way was slavery connected with the growth 
of cities in the South? 

What was the most important change in social conditions during 
the periods of National Growth and European Interference and 
Westward Expansion and Slavery? Discuss each of the classes 
which existed in southern society during the latter period. Explain 
carefully why these sharp class distinctions still existed in the 
South. Give a full and careful discussion of the causes which 
tended to destroy class distinctions in northern society. Explain 
the effect of these causes or principles on social relations in the 
North. How did the railroads affect the manners, customs, and 
amusements of the people? Compare the amusements of the 
people in the country with the amusements of those in the cities. 
Explain the conditions which enable the people to have better 
food and better clothes. 

What was the nature of the change in government during the 
period of Westward Expansion and Slavery? Explain in what way 
this was true with regard to the changes in national government. 
Explain in what way it was true with regard to the changes in 
state government. Explain in what way it was true with regard to 
changes in local government. Explain in what way and why these 
changes did not apply to the South. Explain carefully why the 
judicial department of government is so very important. Explain 
carefully wiiy the selection of judges is of so great importance. 
Why may the election of judges by ])opu]ar vote be iniwisc and 
result in injury? If you were voting for a man for the position of 
judge, and there were several candidates, how would you decide 
for which one to vote? 

What was the nature of the changes or growth in religious con- 
ditions during this period? How did this growth affect the 



246 WES rWARD EXPANSION AND SLAVERY 

standard of morals among the masses of people? Review briefly 
the condition of education during the period of National Growth 
and European Interference. Describe carefully the growth of the 
public school system during the period of Westward Expansion 
and Slavery. Describe the conditions which existed during this 
time that caused rapid improvement in the public schools after 
the Civil War. What was the condition of literature during the 
period of National Growth and European Interference? What was 
the condition during the period of Westward Expansion and 
Slavery? Name some of the more important writers of this period, 
and one of the more important works of each. Explain carefully 
the efTect that the work of these men had on the masses of the 
people. In what way did the work of these men afTect literature 
and education after the Civil War? What effect did the Civil War 
have in this respect? 

Questions for Compositions and E.xaminations 

Discuss the nature of the industrial changes which took place 
during the period of Westward Expansion and Slavery. Discuss 
the improvements in the means of transportation and communi- 
cation, and the effect of this improvement on the industrial and 
social life of the nation and on the growth of national unity. 
Discuss some of the other important inventions and discoveries of 
.this period, and their effect on the industrial life of the nation. 
Discuss the growth of agriculture and manufactures. Discuss the 
growth of commerce and cities. Discuss the changes in social 
conditions. Discuss the changes in government. Discuss the 
changes in religion. Discuss the growth of literature and the 
public schools. 



THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

(In connection with the study of this suhject each pupil 
should read the fourth number of Hart's Source Readers.) 

COMPARATR^E RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND 
THE SOUTH 

I AvAiLABLi; Soldiers, Commanders and Military 
Supplies 

D. Ui; Mc. 423-424; Ma. 340-341; G. 320-321; 
T. 332-335, 341 ; M. 298-299 

H Financial Resources: Means oe Transportation 
D. 445-447 ; Mc. 423 ; Ma. 340-341 ; G. 320-321 ; T. 
360-361; M. 333 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

I The Right oe Secession 

D. 447-450 ; G. 318 

II Secession 

D. 450-452; Mc. 378-381; Ma. 332-337; G. 319; 
T. 323-335; M. 292-297 

HI The Fall oe Fort Sumter 

D. 452-454; Mc. 382; Ma. 337-339; G. 322-324; 
T. 326, 338, 330, 331; M. 394-296 

IV The Battle of Bull Run 

D. 154; Mc. 387-388; Ma. 311-343; G. 324-327; T. 
33()-337; M. 300-302 

CAMPAIGNS 

I Scope and Nature oe Campaigns: Method oe 
Treatment 

D. 455-457; G. 328; T. 338; M. 302 



J48 THE AMERICAN CIVIL W AR 

II Tin: EastkriX Campaign 

1. 'fJic first Advance on Richmond 

D. 457-459; Mc. 392-304; Ma. 343, 354-357; 
G. 33G-342 ; T. 340 ; M. 310-313 

2. TJie Battles of Antictam and Fredericksburg 

D. 459-4fil; Mc. 391; Ma. 357-359; G. 342; 
T. 347-348 ; M. 313-314 

3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation 

D. 461; Mc. 394-39G; Ma. 358-359; G. 348- 
350; T. 349-352; M. 314 

4. The Battles of Clmncellorsville and Gettysburg 

D. 462-464; Mc. 396; Ma. 359-362; G. 343- 
347; T. 353-356; M. 315-317 

III The Western Campaign 

1. The Western Commanders 

D. 464-466 

2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee 

D. 466-468; Mc. 388-391; Ma. ;M8-352; G. 
331-336; T. 341-343, 353; M. 305-308 

3. The Capture of New Orleans 

D. 468; Mc. 3!)l-;!92; Ma. 352-353; G. 336; 
T. 346; M. 308-310 

4. TJie Battles of Perryrille and Murfreesboro: Re- 

sult of the Year's Work — 1S62 

D. 469-470; Ma. 35:5-354; T. 3-18; M. :',13-;",1 I 

5. Capture of Jlcksburg 

D. 471; Mc. 397-398; Ma. 3(52-36 1; T. 356- 
357; M. 317-320 



the Work of the Navy in the Civil War 24<J 

6. Cliickaiiiaiiga and Chattanooga 

D. 472-473; Mc. 398-399; Ma. 305-366; G. 
351-354; T. 357; M. 320 

7. Result of the Year's Work — i86s 

D. 473 

IV Tiiiv Campaigns of 1864-1865 

1. Ttic War in the West and the South 

D. 474-476; Mc. 399-406; Ma. 372, 374-376; 
G. 357-361; T. 367-374, 380; M. 322-333 

2. The War m Virginia 

D. 476-478; Ma. 369-372; G. 355-357, 365- 
367 ; T. 382 ; M. 322-323, 324-326 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY IN THE CIVIL WAR 

I Blockade of the; Southern Ports 

D. 478-479; Mc. 410-412; Ma. 344-345; G. 328- 
329 ; T. 332-333, 358-375 ; M. 302-303 

II CoMMliRCK Dl'STROYERS 

D. 479; Mc. 412-414; Ma. 345-347; G. 329; T. 
358-359, 375 ; M. 303-304 

III The Revolution in Naval Warfare 

D. 480-482; Mc. 414-417; Ma. 347-348, 373; G. 
329-331; T. 343-346; M. 303-305 

GENERAL RESULTS OF THE WAR 

D. 482; M. 419-424; Ma. 379-385; G. 369-370; T. 386- 
388 ; M. 315, 337 



THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

The real causes of the Civil War were much deeper than the 
political events which led up to it. As has already been stated, 
the fundamental causes of this w^ar are to be found in the 
difference in the topography, climate and soil of the North and 
South, and in the introduction of slavery into the English colo- 
nies. The effect of these conditions in developing two civiliza- 
tions in the two sections of the country differing in almost 
every way, and the consequent growth of antagonism between 
the North and the South, have been rather fully treated in 
preceding topics. To sum up the conditions leading inevitably 
to war : The topography, climate and soil of the United States 
made slavery profitable in the South and unprofitable in the 
North. This led to the gradual abolition of slavery in the 
North and to the gradual growth there of a sentiment against 
it. In the South, on the other hand, industrial conditions 
tended to establish slavery permanently, and the whole social 
and industrial life of the South became firmly moulded around 
the institution of slavery. The North, resting upon a founda- 
tion of free labor, developed its resources and outgrew the 
South rapidly in population and wealth. The South, because 
of the nature and effect of slave labor, was falling behind the 
North in nearly all respects. It had come to regard negro 
slavery as morally right and something to be protected and 
encouraged. Long before the outbreak of the Civil War, 
southern society rested so firmly on slavery that to destroy it 
meant, in a certain sense, the destruction of southern institu- 
tions. It is no wonder, therefore, that the statesmen and slave 
owners of the South would not for a moment consider the 
abolition of the slavery svstem. 

By 18(10 the North and the South had become two peoples, 
socially and industrially. The statesmen of the South foresaw 
that it was only a question of time when the slave states must 
leave the Union, or give up slavery, and thus wreck the foun- 
dation of southern society. They chose to fight rather than 
do this. The people of the North, under the same circum- 



Comparative Resources of the North and the South 251 

stances, would probably have followed a similar course. In 
other words, there were conditions which made the Civil War 
inevitable. It was caused by forces beyond the control of the 
people of either section. It dealt with one of those questions 
in advancing civilization that must usually be settled by the 
sword. 



COMPARATIVE RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND 
THE SOUTH 

I Available Soldiers, Commanders, and Military Sup- 
plies 

The total population of the United States in 18G0 was 
about 31,000,000. There were not more than 6,000,000 
white inhabitants in the states that seceded and not less 
than 20,000,000 in those states that supported the national 
government. There were many men of military training 
in both the North and the South and a few of great mili- 
tary genius, but the ablest military leaders of the North 
did not secure command of the Federal army imtil several 
years after the war began, while the southern armies were 
commanded by the ablest southern generals from the very 
first. 

In the beginning the South had the advantage in the 
way of military supplies, which had been stored in south- 
ern arsenals before the outbreak of hostilities. But as the 
North tightened the blockade and prevented the bringing 
in of war material from England, the South, having no 
manufactures of her own, became severely handicapped 
because of the scarcity which prevailed. It was not until 
the outcome of the war had j^ractically been decided that 
the necessary factories were put into operation for sup- 
plying the needs of the southern armies. The North, 
being a manufacturing country, with factories already in 
operation, was able to provide itself with the necessary 
military supplies. 



253 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

II Financial Rksourcks; Facilitiks i-or Tkansi'ortation 

When the hlockade stopped the export of their cotton 
and tobacco, tlie southerners became reduced to dreadful 
straits for money. To meet this condition an immense 
amount of paper money was issued just as had been done 
by the Continental Congress during the Revolution, and, 
like the Continental Currency, this Confederate money 
soon depreciated in value until it became almost worthless. 
In the North, on account of a much stronger credit, the 
government was able to sell immense quantities of bonds, 
and to issue paper money without its depreciation to any 
very great extent as compared with the currency of the 
Confederacy. On account of its industrial activity, the 
North was also able to raise large sums from taxation. 

Before and during the war a vast network of railroads 
w^as being woven between the various northern states. 
When the crisis came, the North was able to transport 
soldiers and military supplies from one point to another 
with comparatively little delay. In the South, on the 
other hand, railroads were comparatively few and poorly 
equipped, nor had they the iron for replacing worn-out 
rails, nor the workmen to repair and keep the lines in 
working order. There was no lack of agricultural prod- 
ucts, but much distress and even threatened starvation was 
caused both to the soldiers and the other inhabitants be- 
cause of the poor means of (listril)ution. 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

I TiiK Ric.irr oi' Skci:ssu)n 

The constitution is silent on the question of secession. 
Many people held that there was no legal nor constitu- 
tional objection to secession. The other view is that the 
adoption of the constitution by the "people" of the United 
States and n(jt by the "states" denies to any state the legal 
right to secede. Many maintain that although the south- 
ern people were mistaken, most of them believed that the 
North was trying to deprive them of their rights and 



Secession and Beginnings 253 

liberties, and that this gave them the natural right to take 
up arms in defence of those rights and liberties as their 
forefathers had done in the past. 

II Secession 

The admission of California as a free state and the 
result of the Kansas trouble convinced the southern leaders 
that there could be no hope of the furtlier extension of 
slave territory. The election of Lincoln furnished the 
opportunity or excuse for withdrawing from the Union. 
The southern leaders now believed that secession was the 
only means of saving slavery. In December, 18(10, South 
Carolina seceded and shortly afterwards six other south- 
ern states followed. Delegates from these states met at 
Montgomery and organized the Confederate States of 
America. Jefiferson Davis was elected President and Alex- 
ander Stephens, Vice-President. 

III The Fall of Fort Sumter 

The new government immediately began taking pos- 
session of all the federal property in the seceded states. 
President Buchanan made no serious attempt to prevent 
this. When Lincoln was inaugurated he took steps to 
save this property to the L^nion. He declared that no 
state had a right to secede, and that he would uphold 
the law. The seceding states could not be an independent 
nation and be under the federal law, so this meant civil 
war. Lincoln attempted to send supplies to Fort Sumter 
and this led to its bombardment and capture by the Con- 
federates. 

The effect of the fall of Fort Sumter on the North 
was to arouse the people to an effort to uphold the Union. 
Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand men, and this 
caused the border slave states to withdraw. 

IV The Battle oe Bull Run 

The real war began at Bull Run, where the Union 
army attacked the Confederates. The Union army was 



254 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

(Icfeated, and this showed the \f)rlh the difficulty of the 
task of subduino; the vSouth. The South felt that this 
battle would end the war, but the movement in the North 
toward raisinq- new armies soon caused the southern peo- 
ple to realize that a great conflict had just begun. 

CAMPAIGNS 
I ScoPD AND Naturi.: of Campaicns: Mktiiod of Tri-at- 

MIvNT 

The federal government planned three great military 
movements with a view of forcing the South back into 
the Union. One was to move directly toward Richmond. 
This with the protection of Washington was the work 
for the Army of the Potomac. A second was to get con- 
trol of the Mississippi, cutting olT the Confederate states 
to the westward. This was the work for the Army of the 
West. A third plan was to blockade the southern ports 
and cut off all communication by water with the outside 
world. This called for an immense navy. To meet these 
armies the Confederate states organized the Army of 
Northern Virginia, and several western armies. A num- 
ber of ironclads were constructed to defend the seaports 
and break up the blockade. The Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia was fortunate in having the same commander 
throughout the war. This cannot be said of any other 
army either north or south. Robert E. Lee, the com- 
mander in Virginia, was one of the ablest generals the 
new world has produced and the numerous successes of 
the Army of Northern Virginia were due in a large 
measure to his leadership. 

For the sake of clearness the campaigns will be taken 
up under the following heads : 

(1) The Eastern Campaign, taking up the struggle in 
the East up to the time that Grant takes command. 

(2) The Western Campaign, including the operations 
in the west. 



Campaigns 255 

(3) The Campaign of 1804-1805, which inckides the 
work of Grant as Commander-in-Chief. 

II The: Eastern Campaign 

1. first Adi'ance on Richmond 

After the disastrous battle of Bull Run, the troops 
around Washington were placed under the command of 
McClellan, and called the Army of the Potomac. The 
proposed work of this army was to capture Richmond. 
Two plans were proposed for reaching Richmond. The 
authorities at Washington thought that the better way 
was for the army to proceed directly South. McClellan 
objected to this, on account of the many rivers in the 
path, beside which strong fortifications had been erected 
by the Confederates. He advised that soldiers be landed 
from transports at Yorktown, Virginia, and from there 
proceed against Richmond. McClellan's plan prevailed, 
and in the spring of 1862, with an army of 100,000 
men, he was transferred to the vicinity of Yorktown. 
After several months of hard fighting the campaign 
ended in failure. 

2. Battles of Antictaui and Prcdcrickshurcr 

In August, 18G2, McClellan was ordered back to 
defend Washington. A month later, the armies of Lee 
and McClellan met at Sharpsburg, or Antietam, in west- 
ern Maryland. Here a great battle was fought, with 
the result that Lee was compelled to retreat across the 
Potomac and for the time abandoned his idea of invad- 
ing the North. As McClellan did not follow Lee with 
sufficient energy to meet the approval of the authorities 
at Washington, he was removed and Burnside was 
placed in command. In December, 18G3, Burnside was 
defeated at Fredericksburg, and his command was given 
to General Hooker. 



256 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

3. Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation 

On September 22, 18G2, in the face of the defeats of 
the Union armies Lincohi took a firm stand on the 
slavery question and issued his Proclamation of Eman» 
cipation. This applied only to those states in open 
reljcllion and it was intended purely as a military meas- 
ure to cripple the seceding^ states. The whole North, 
h.owever, believed that in case the North was successful, 
this meant the end of slavery in America, as was actu- 
ally the case. 

4. Battles of ChanccUorst'illc and Gcttyshnvi^ 

In the spring- of 18G3 Hooker crossed the Rapidan, 
only to meet with a terrible defeat at the hands of Lee's 
army at Chancellorsville. In this battle Stonewall 
Jackson, one of Lee's ablest generals, was accidentally 
killed by his own men. Encouraged by his victory over 
Hooker, Lee again attempted to invade the North. 
Amid great excitement throughout the North, Hooker 
was removed, and General George A. Meade given 
command of the Army of the Potomac. The two armies 
met at Gettysburg, a village in southeastern Pennsyl- 
vania. Here, on the first, second, and third days of 
July, 1SG3, was fought one of the greatest battles in 
the history of the world. Lee's army was defeated, and 
he never again attempted to carry the war into the 
enemy's country. Meade did not pursue Lee's shat- 
tered forces. The Army of the Potomac fought no 
other great battles until after Grant assumed command 
of all the armies of the United States, in March, 1804. 

HI TiiK Western Campaign 

1. The Western Commanders 

The leading commanders in the West on the L'nion 
side were Grant, Sherman, Thomas, and Sheridan. 
Grant stands out as the most successful Union com- 
mander. His success was due, in a large measure, to 
his persistence. Next to Grant was Sherman, Grant's 



Campaigns 257 

right hand man in the western campaigns. Thomas 
was one of the most rehable commanders in the North, 
while Sheridan was the most brilHant cavalry com- 
mander. 

2. Union Successes in Western Tennessee 

In the early part of 1862, Grant was placed in com- 
mand of the Union forces at Cairo, Illinois. His first 
important work was the capture of Forts Henry and 
Donelson, on the Cumberland River. These forts 
commanded the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, 
which Grant wanted to open. Foote with his gunboats 
captured Fort Henry and Grant attacked Fort Donel- 
son. After three days of fighting, Buckner, as com- 
mander of the Confederate forces, asked Grant what 
terms would be granted him if he should surrender the 
fort, together with his force of fifteen thousand men. 
Grant replied, "No terms, except unconditional and im- 
mediate surrender, can be accepted." Buckner surren- 
dered under the terms mentioned, and thus Grant won 
the first great Union victory. Grant now moved up 
the Tennessee and fought the battle of Shiloh or Pitts- 
burg Landing. Albert Sidney Johnston, in command 
of the Confederate army, was killed and his army forced 
to retreat. 

3. Capture of New Orleans 

While Grant was operating in Tennessee, Farragut 
was moving with his fleet against New Orleans. It 
was important to take this city for two reasons : To 
cut ofif supplies that were coming from Texas and Mex- 
ico, and to open up the Mississippi. Farragut silenced 
the forts and secured tire city's surrender. 

4. Perryvillc and Murfreeshoro: Result of the Year's 

Work— 1862 

The Confederates made a desperate attempt to regain 
Eastern Tennessee after the loss of so many important 

17 



258 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

posts. Bragg led an army from Chattanooga and met 
the Union army under rniell at Perryville in Kentucky. 
Bragg retired to Chattanooga and next marched north- 
ward and met Tliomas and Sheridan at Murfreesboro. 
Bragg again retired to Chattanooga. This ended the 
campaign for 1862. Grant during the year had made 
great headway, while in the East the northern armies 
were being defeated by Lee. 

5. Capture of Vickshiirg 

Grant's next important work was the siege and cap- 
ture of Vicksburg. Vicksburg was a well fortified city 
on the Mississippi, defended by thirty-seven thousand 
soldiers under the command of Pemberton. After a 
siege of seven weeks, the city was compelled to surren- 
der on the fourth day of July, 18G3, just one day after 
the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg. Port Hudson sur- 
rendered five days later, and the Federal government 
had secured control of the ^lississippi from Minnesota 
to the Gulf. These events were the beginning of the 
end, and the cause of the South from this time onward 
steadily declined. 

G. CJiickaiiiauga and Chatianooga 

After Vicksburg, Grant centered his eflforts against 
the Confederates in Tennessee. A bloody battle was 
fought at Chickamauga, where Thomas saved the Union 
army from defeat. 

Grant next turned his attention to Chattanooga, at 
which place Bragg had defeated Rosecrans and laid 
siege to the l^nion army. Lender the direction of Grant, 
the two brilliant battles of Lookout Mountain and Mis- 
sionary Ridge were fought. The Confederates under 
Bragg were driven southward toward Atlanta. 

7. Result of the Years Work— 1863 

This ended the Campaign of 1863 in the West. Again 
Grant had succeeded in his work. Since he began 



Campaigns 259 

operations, he had with Farragut's help opened up the 
Mississippi, captured Vicksburg with a whole Confed- 
erate army and had driven the Confederates out of Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee. In the East, willi the exception 
of Gettysburg, Lee had successfully resisted the Army 
of the Potomac. This contrast caused Lincoln and 
the whole nation to look to Grant as the man to lead 
the army against Lee. 

IV Tiiu Campaigns oi^ 1804-1865 

1. JJ^ar in the West and South 

In March, 18G4, Grant was made Commander-in- 
Chief of all the Union forces. He gave his personal 
attention to the Army of the Potomac, but directed the 
movements of all the Federal troops. Sherman was 
placed in command at Chattanooga. He moved South, 
captured Atlanta, and marched from there to the sea 
and captured Savannah. 

2. TJie War in Virginia 

Early in the spring of 18G4, Grant took command of 
the Army of the Potomac, consisting of about one hun- 
dred twenty thousand men. He moved his army south- 
ward, crossed the Rappahannock and entered the Wil- 
derness. Here he met Lee's army of sixty thousand 
men, and a terrible struggle ensued. In one month 
Grant lost nearly sixty thousand soldiers, but he forced 
Lee to retreat and take up his position within the forti- 
fications of Richmond. Grant laid siege to the city. 
Sherman's march through the South and Sheridan's 
raids with his cavalry had cut off a large part of Lee's 
provisions. Lee evacuated Richmond and attempted to 
escape, but Grant surrounded his army and forced a 
surrender at Appomattox Court House, a little place 
about seventy-five miles w^est of Richmond, April 9, 
18G5. The surrender of Lee marked the end of the 
Civil War, although some of the other southern armies 
did not surrender until a little later. 



260 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

THE WORK OF THE NAVY IN THE CIML WAR 

I Blockadi-: of the Southern Ports 

At the beginning of the war the national government, 
•in order to cripple the Confederacy as much as possible, 
decided upon a complete blockade of the southern ports. 
Until this blockade was effected, the South could export 
cotton, sugar, and tobacco, and import arms and other 
military supplies. To accomplish this blockade, the na- 
tional government had at first about twenty-four vessels, 
but it built and equipped a navy with marvelous rapidity, 
and by the close of the year 1861, had the blockade fairly 
effective. There were more than three thousand miles of 
coast for the Union vessels to watch, however, and many 
vessels, known as blockade-runners, would slip past the 
Union vessels in the night and succeed in bringing sup- 
plies to the Confederates. During the war, more than 
fifteen hundred of these blockade-runners were taken or 
destroyed by the Union fleet. 

n Commerce Destroyers 

While the North was busy in perfecting a blockade of 
the southern coast, the Confederates were fitting out ves- 
sels called Commerce-Destroyers. It was the business 
of these vessels to watch the great highways of commerce 
and to destroy as many Union merchant ships as possible. 
The most famous vessels of this kind were the Florida, 
the Alabama, and the Shenandoah, all of which were fitted 
out in England. They did an immense amount of damage 
to the commerce of the North during the war. In 1872, 
a board of arbitration, to which the case had been sub- 
mitted, decided that F.ngland should pay the United States 
the sum of fifteen million dollars on account of the injury 
done to American commerce during the war by the Con- 
federate Commerce-Destroyers which had been fitted out 
in English ports. This settlement is known as the Geneva 
Award. 



Results 261 

III The; Revolution in Naval Warfare 

In the early part of 18G2 the Confederates raised a 
vessel which had been sunk in the navy yard at Norfolk, 
Virginia. They covered it with a double plating of iron, 
and christened it the Virginia. This was the first ironclad 
warship ever constructed. With this vessel the Confed- 
erates destroyed several of the larger Union vessels at that 
time lying in Hampton Roads, Virginia. Before it had 
completed the work of destruction at that port, the Mon- 
itor, an ironclad vessel built in New York by John Erics- 
son, arrived on the scene. A battle took place between 
the two vessels which was to be the most important single 
event of the war, proving as it did that a few ironclad 
vessels could destroy the largest wooden navy afloat. A 
complete revolution in naval construction now took place, 
and the great wooden war-vessels of the world were 
rapidly supplanted by iron-protected fighting-machines. 

RESULTS 

The main results of the Civil War were the destruction of 
slavery, the great industrial development of the South, which 
the destruction of slavery made possible, the enfranchisement 
of the negro, and the race problem which this enfranchisement 
created and which has not yet been settled. Since the war the 
industrial development of the South has been extremely rapid. 
Iron and coal fields second to none in the world have been dis- 
covered. The production of cotton has vastly increased. Man- 
ufacturing establishments of every kind have been springing 
into existence. Many large manufacturing establishments are 
moving their machinery from New England into the South. 

Another important result of the war has been the unification 
of the nation. Sectional feeling has almost vanished because 
slavery, its cause, has been removed. During the Spanish- 
American War ex-Confederate soldiers fought side by side 
with Federal soldiers who had been their old opponents in the 
Civil War. Other results of the war were the destruction of 
more than six billion dollars' worth of property and the loss of 
about seven hundred thousand of the best men of the nation, 
the South losing almost as many of these as the North. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

RESOURCES OF THE NORTH AND THE SOUTH 

Questions for Class Recitations 

(In connection with the questions on the Civil War, each pupil 
should read the fourth number of Hart's "Source Readers in 
American History." See "Explanatory and Suggestive," page ix.) 
Explain briefly how the difference in the topography, climate, and 
soil of the North and South was the main or fundamental cause of 
the American Civil War. Beginning with the Missouri Compro- 
mise, explain briefly the political events which led directly to this 
war. Explain carefully how the South in two respects had an 
advantage of the North at the beginning of the Civil War. After 
tlie war began, why was the North able to secure ample military 
and other supplies, and why was the South unable to do so? 
Compare the Union states with the Confederate states in regard 
to population, and explain the causes of this difference. In what 
way was the difference in population of advantage to the North? 
Compare the North and the South in regard to means of trans- 
portation, and explain how the difference between the two sections 
in this respect aifected the result of the Civil War. Discuss the 
financial resources of the North and South during the war, and 
explain how the difference between the two sections in this respect 
affected the result of the war. Discuss the industrial resources 
of the North and South, and explain how the difference between 
the two sections in this respect affected the result of the war. 
Explain the general effect on the result of the war of the difference 
between the general resources of the North and South. 

SECESSION AND BEGINNINGS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain the two views which had been held regarding the right 
of secession. What is your opinion on this question? Explain very 
carefully those principles of the Constitution which indicate that 
no state had the legal or constitutional right to secede. Explain 
what is meant by the natural right of a person to defend and 
protect his life and liberty. Assuming that no state could secede 
or withdraw from the Union in accordance with the Constitution, 
by what right can the secession of the southern states be justified? 
What did the southern people believe the North wished to do 
in regard to their rights and liberties? Explain how this belief 



Questions and Topics 263 

would justify the action of the southern people in regard to the 
war. Explain why the admission of California to the Union as 
a free state and the result of the struggle in Kansas made the 
southern leaders anxious to withdraw from the Union. Why did 
the southern leaders decide to bring about secession when Lincoln 
was elected President? Discuss the secession of the southern 
states and the formation of the Confederate States of America. 
What was the attitude of the Confederacy toward the national 
property within its borders? What was Lincoln's attitude toward 
this property? What was his attitude as to the legal right of a 
state to secede? What did he declare his policy would be on these 
questions? Why was the Confederacy bound to oppose his policy? 
Why were these two views sure to lead to war? Describe the 
fall of Fort Sumter. What effect did the fall of this fort have on 
Lincoln and on the people of the North? Explain the effect 
Lincoln's call for soldiers had on the people of the Confederacy 
and on the people of some of those slave states which had not 
seceded. Describe the battle of Bull Run. What effect did this 
battle have on the national government? What effect did it have 
on the people of the North? What effect did it have on the people 
of the Confederacy? 

CAMPAIGNS 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Why cannot the campaigns of tlje Civil War be discussed very 
fully in a history of the United States for school use? What 
larger history v.'ill you be able to read on the battles and campaigns 
of the Civil War? 

What was the general object of the national government in the 
war? What armies did it organize? What work in the war was 
assigned to each of these armies? What was the general object of 
the Confederacy in this war? What armies did it organize? What 
work were these armies expected to do? In what respect did the 
Army of Northern Virginia differ from the other armies? Describe 
the character and ability of General Lee. What will each of the 
campaigns outlined in this history include? 

Give a rather full discussion of the first advance on Richmond. 
(Discussing a battle as used in these questions means to state 
the conditions or circumstances that led to the battle, describe 
the battle, state the results, and give the importance of these re- 
sults.) Discuss the battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericks- 
burg. Give a careful explanation of Lincoln's Emancipation Pro- 
clamation. Explain the proclamation which he issued regarding 
slavery, on January 1, 1863. Explain carefully just how and to 



204 THE AMERICAN CIVIL WAR 

what extent these proclamations affected slavery. Why did Lin- 
coln free the slaves in the Confederacy? In what way did this 
affect the war? Explain Lincoln's plans regarding slavery in the 
loyal free states, and state with what success it met. Discuss 
the battles of Chancellorsvilie and Gettysburg. Why was the bat- 
tle of Gettysburg a serious defeat for the Confederacy? Discuss 
the general results of the Eastern Campaign. Why was the Army 
of the Potomac not more successful in accomplishing what it was 
expected to accomplish? (At this point each pupil should draw 
a map that will give a clear and complete idea of the Eastern 
Campaign.) 

Describe the character and ability of General Grant. Describe 
the character and ability of General Sherman. What can you say 
about Thomas, Sheridan, and other Union commanders of the 
West? Why was it important for the Union armies to capture 
Fort Henry and Fort Donelson? Describe the capture of these 
two forts. Discuss the battle of Pittsburg Landing. What other 
cities did the LInion army capture soon after this battle? Why 
was it valuable for the national government to secure possession of 
New Orleans? Give a rather full discussion of the capture of this 
city. Discuss the battles of Perryville and Murfreesboro. Com- 
pare carefully the result of the Western Campaign for 1862 with 
the result of the Eastern Campaign for this same year. Discuss 
the capture of Vicksburg. Discuss the battles of Chickamauga 
and Chattanooga. Compare carefully the result of the campaign 
in the West for the year 1863 with the result of the campaign in 
the East of that j^ear. Explain what effect the Western Cam- 
paign had on the reputation of Grant and his position in the army. 
In considering the contest between Grant and Lee in the East, 
what conditions should receive careful consideration? (At this 
point each pupil should draw a map giving a clear and complete 
idea of the W^estern Campaign.) 

What were Grant's plans for the war after he became Com- 
mander in Chief? Discuss the capture of Atlanta. Discuss the 
contest between Thomas and Hood. Discuss Sherman's "March 
to the Sea." What did Sherman do after he had captured Savan- 
nah? Give a careful discussion of Grant's campaign in the East 
from May 4 to June 12, 1804. What did Grant do after he decided 
that he could not capture Richmond by direct advance? What was 
the result of Lee's attempt to draw Grant away from the siege at 
Petersburg and Richmond? Describe the siege of Petersburg and 
Richmond. Discuss the surrender of the Army of Northern Vir- 
ginia. (At this point each pupil should draw a map giving a clear 
and complete idea of the campaigns of 1864-1805.) 



Questions and Topics 265 

• THE WORK OF THE NAVY 
Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain why the Confederacy could not supply enough war 
material for its armies and manufactured goods for its people. 
Explain fully why the national government was so very anxious to 
blockade the Confederate ports. What was absolutely necessary 
in order to blockade these ports? Describe the condition of the 
American navy at the beginning of the Civil War. Describe 
its condition at the end of that war. To what extent was the 
North successful in blockading the Confederate ports? Explain 
how this hastened the end of the war. Explain in what way the 
navy gave direct assistance to the Union army in its land cam- 
paigns. 

What is a commerce destroyer? What was the object of the 
Confederates in building and equipping these vessels? Why did 
the English government permit these vessels to be built in Eng- 
land? Discuss the Geneva Award. Explain in what way these 
Confederate commerce destroyers did a great injury to the Ameri- 
can shipping industry in addition to the value of the ships which 
they actually destroyed. Describe the Virginia (Merrimac) and 
the Monitor. What was the result of the first day's work of the 
Virginia? What effect did this have on the national government 
and on the people of the North? Describe the battle between the 
Virginia and the Monitor. What was the effect of this battle on 
the future construction of war vessels? 

RESULTS 

Questions for Class Recitations 

State and explain some of the main results of the Civil War. 
Explain why the war tended to unify the nation. Give some 
illustrations that tend to prove this. 

Questions for Compositions and Examinations 

Give a careful comparison and discussion of the resources of 
the Union and Confederate states. Discuss secession and the right 
of secession. Discuss the fall of Fort Sumter and the first battle 
of Bull Run. Discuss the scope and nature of the campaigns of the 
Civil War. Give a full discussion of the Eastern Campaign. 
Give a full discussion of the Western Campaign. Give a full dis- 
cussion of the campaign of 1864-1865. Discuss the work of the 
navy in the Civil War. Discuss the results of the war. 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND 
EXPANSION 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES 

I Relation of tuk Skceded States to the National 

Government 

D. 489 ; Mc. 427 ; Ma. 386 ; G. 374-375 

II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 

D. 490-491; Mc. 427-430; G. 3(57-368; T. 390-393; 
M. 338 

in Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 
D. 492-494, 581-584 ; Mc. 429-431, 439 ; Ma. 386- 
388; G. 375-376; T. 392-395, 402; M. 338-341 

IV Reconstruction Policy of Congress 

D. 494-495; Mc. 430-431; Ma. 388-390; G. 376- 
380; T. 392-394; M. 338-339 

V Some Results of Reconstruction 

D. 495-497; Mc. 431; Ma. 390-396; G. 380-383; T. 
394-395; M. 339-341 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

I Political Methods 

D. 497-499; Ma. 405; G. 414, 421-422; T. 417, 
427-428, 451; M. 357, 363, 376-377, 381 

II Political Parties 

D. 499-500; Mc. 439, 442-448, 462-470, 475-476, 
484-486; Ma. 396-402, 403-404, 406, 408, 411, 
414, 415; G. 385. 411. 428; T. 395-396, 408-409, 
413, 416-419, 434-436, 447, 452-455, 475-477, 
501-502 



Foreign Relations 267 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

I Financial Legislation 

1. The National Debt and the National Banking 

System 

D. 501-503 ; Mc. 421 ; T. 364 

2. Resumption of Specie Payment 

D. 502; Mc. 420, 437-438, 445-446; Ma. 
398-400, 403 ; G. 407-408, 412-413 ; T. 3G1- 
362, 414, 425 ; M. 355, 356 

3. Gold and SUz'cr Standards 

D. 503; Mc. 448-449, 467, 471-472, 485; 
Ma. 412 ; T. 422-423, 448, 456, 475, 500 ; M. 
349-350, 374, 378, 403 

II Tariff Legislation 

D. 504; Mc. 419-420, 466, 473, 476; Ma. 408, 
409, 413, 415 ; G. 425-427 ; T. 429, 441-423, 446- 
447, 472 ; M. 373, 380, 383 

III Industrial Combinations 

1. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organizations 

D. 505; Mc. 459-461, 464; Ma. 439-442; 
G. 408-410, 417, 427; T. 438-439, 473; M. 
363-368 

2. Lazvs Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Other 

Organizations 

D. 506; Mc. 443-444, 465; T. 437-438; M. 
359, 365, 370 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 

D. 507; Mc. 450-451; Ma. 395; G. 404-405; T. 

397; M. 342 



2G8 RECONS'IRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

II Treaty of Washington, 1871 

D. 507; Mc. 450; Ma. 395-396; T. 405-407; U. 353 

III Application of the Monroe Doctrine 

1. The French in Mexico, 1861-186/ 

D. 508; Mc. 449-450; Ma. 394; G. 364; T. 
398-399 

2. The Venezuela Boundary, i8p/' 

D. 508-509; Mc. 474; Ma. 414; G. 427-438; 
T. 477-478; M. 381-382 

IV Growth of Arbitration 

1. Application of the Principles of Arbitration 

D. 509-510 ; T. 445, 455, 473 ; M. 379 

2. The Hague Tribunal, i8pp 

(To be discussed by the teacher.) 
D. 510; M. 403 

V The Spanish-American War, 1898 

1. Causes 

D. 510; Mc. 476-477; Ma. 446-450; G. 430- 
431 ; T. 479-485 ; M. 388-390 

2. Campaigns 

(a) Naval Warfare 

D. 511; Mc. 477-480; Ma. 450-453; G. 
431-435; T. 483-489; M. 391-393 

(b) The War on Land 

D. 511; Mc. 479-480; Ma. 452; G. 
433-434 ; T. 489-492 ; M. 393-395 



Iiistitittioiial Life 269 

3. Results 

(a) Territorial 

D. 511-512; Mc. 480-483; Ma. 454-456; 
G>435; T. 494-495, 497-500; M. 395- 
398 

(b) Political 

D. 512; Mc. 483; Ma. 455, 457, 460; G. 
435-436; T. 495-496; M. 396-398 

VI The Isthmian Canal 

(To be discussed by the teacher) 
D. 512-513 ; Ma. 461-462 ; M. 404 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

I Industrial Conditions 

1. Improved Means of Transportation and Commu- 

nication 

*D. 514; Mc. 434-435, 456; Ma. 415-417, 
417-418; G. 399-400, 440; T. 396-397, 399- 
401, 410, 414, 464; M. 341-342, 344-346 

2. Other Inventions and Discoveries 

D. 515; Mc. 459; Ma. 420-422, 434-438; G. 
4Q| g ^4 ; T. 464 ; M. 349-351 

3. Manufacfures and Agricidture 

D. 516-518; Mc. 454, 457, 459; Ma. 418-424, 
426-427; G. 388-390; T. 415, 464; M. 347, 
351, 373, 375, 400 

4. Commerce and Popidation 

D. 518-519; G. 393-396; T. 464, 500; M. 383- 
384, 405 



270 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

5. The Nezv South 

D. 510; Mc. 454; Ma. 428-434; G. 385-392; 
T. 432-434, 4G5 ; M. 3G0-363 

6. The Deirlopmcnt of the Nezv West 

D. 520-522 ; Mc. 454-458 ; G. 393-402 ; T. 465 ; 
M. 381 

II Social Conditions 

D. 522 ; Mc. 460 ; Ma. 431-432 ; T. 439-440, 461 

III Education 

1. A' attire of Development 

D. 523-524; Ma. 432, 442-446; G. 390, 441- 
444; T. 466-471; M. 402 

2. The Public Bleiiicntary School System 

D. 525 

3. The Public High School System 

D. 526 ; Ma. 444 ; G. 442 

4. Universities, Colleges and Special Schools 

D. 526 ; Ma. 440 ; G. 442 



% 



RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND 
EXPANSION 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE SECEDED STATES 

I Relation of the Seceded States to the National 

Government 

When the Civil War closed, the governments of the 
Confederacy and of the states forming the Confederacy 
w^ere completely broken up, and the nation was confronted 
with the serious problem of restoring the South to its 
proper political and constitutional relations to the national 
government. In order to restore these states to their 
proper places it was necessary first to determine into just 
what relation to the national government they had been 
placed by secession. Some, among whom were Lincoln 
and Johnson, held that states could not secede and there- 
fore the southern states had never left the Union ; that 
the attempted secession had merely had the effect of 
destroying the constitutional privileges of those taking 
part ; that these privileges might be restored through the 
pardoning power of the President ; that as soon as 
state governments were re-established these states could 
resume their former places in the Federal government. 
Others maintained that secession had reduced the seceding 
states to the condition of territories, and that Congress 
could manag^[|fcse territories just as it pleased. The 
view which p^^HIed ultimately was a medium one, — that 
the southern states had not lost their statehood, but that 
they had lost their constitutional rights as states, and that 
Congress had the power to restore these rights at its dis- 
cretion. 

II Death of Lincoln : His Character and Ability 

In the midst of the rejoicing over the termination of the 
war, Lincoln was shot down by a half-crazed sympathizer 
of the South. In some respects he is the most remarkable 



272 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPiMENT AND EXPANSION 

man in American history. Born in abject poverty and 
raised in a wilderness, by his energy he attained the high- 
est place in the nation. A man of lofty character and 
ability, and possessed of a great amount of common sense, 
he carried the nation through the greatest crisis in its 
history. 

III Reconstruction Policy of Lincoln and Johnson 

Lincoln, acting on his theory regarding the political 
relation of the seceded states to the national government, 
issued a proclamation in December, 18G3, in which, with 
some exceptions, he promised to pardon all those in rebel- 
lion who w^ould lay down their arms and take an oath to 
support the Constitution and all laws or proclamations 
concerning the emancipation of slaves. He also prom- 
ised that a new state government might be organized in a 
seceded state as soon as the number of persons taking the 
oath in that state w'as one tenth as large as the number 
that had voted in 18G0, and that such state would then be 
given full recognition by the national government. Four 
states reorganized upon this basis. After Lincoln's death 
the same policy was pursued by Johnson in reconstructing 
the remaining seceded states, but his work was not allowed 
to stand by Congress, which was determined to have a 
voice in the reconstruction. 

IV Reconstruction Policy oe Congress 

The Emancipation Proclamation had freed the slaves 
only in the seceding states. Tn dV^r to abolish slavery 
throughout the Union the Thirieenth Amendment was 
proposed by Congress in January, 18G5, and was ratified 
by the necessary number of states during the year and 
proclaimed in force in December. Many of the southern 
legislatures deemed it necessary to enact certain laws for 
the control of the freedmen. These laws restricted the 
freedom of the ex-slaves, and stirred up strong feeling 
in the North by causing people to believe that the South 
was trying to re-enslave the negro. 



Reconstruction of Seceded States 273 

In order to protect and aid the ex-slaves, Congress, 
early in 1S65, passed a measure which provided for the 
establishment of what was called the Freedmen's Bureau. 
The severe labor or vagrancy laws passed in many of the 
southern states in 1865 and ISfifi, led Congress to continue 
this bureau to 1870, and to enlarge its duties and powers 
for the aid and protection of the freedmen. 

The radical Republicans had gradually gained control 
of Congress by ISHH, and they were strongly opposed to 
Johnson's lenient reconstruction policy. Congress pro- 
posed the Fourteenth Amendment, which made the negro 
a citizen. The southern states refused to ratify this 
amendment. Congress then passed a Reconstruction Act 
which required the seceded states to ratify this amendment 
before they might send Senators and Representatives to 
Congress. This completely overthrew the reconstruction 
work done by Johnson. Six of the seceded states soon 
complied with this reconstructive act. The ratification of 
the Fourteenth Amendment by these six states completed 
the number necessary to make it a part of the constitu- 
tion. In July, 1868, it was declared to be in full force and 
effect. 

The refusal of the southern states to ratify th-e Four- 
teenth Amendment giving the negro the rights of citizen- 
ship led to the passage by Congress of a series of acts 
limiting the President's power and placing severe restric- 
tions on the southern states. The Reconstruction Act 
itself provided for the division of the southern states into 
military districts each under the command of an army 
officer. This act m.ade it necessary for the seceded states 
to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution 
before being re-admitted to the Union, the Thirteenth 
Amendment having already been made a part of the Con- 
stitution. It also fixed such conditions upon the suffrage 
in these states that the voting lay almost altogether in 
the hands of former slaves and immigrants from the North 
— "carpet baggers," as they were called — who flocked into 
the South after the war to profit by conditions there. By 



274 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

thus shutting- out the southerners from voting, Congress 
secured in six of the states the formation of conventions 
that would ratify the proposed amendment. 

In February, ISfiO, Congress proposed the Fifteenth 
Amendment to the Constitution. This gave the negro the 
right to vote. Those states which had refused to ratify 
the Fourteenth Amendment were now obliged to ratify 
both the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments before 
they could re-enter the Union. Having been ratified by 
a sufficient number of states, the Fifteenth Amendment 
went into effect in March, 1870. With its ratification by 
the last of the seceding states in 1871, the political recon- 
struction of the South came to an end. 

V SoMi$ Riisur.Ts OF Reconstruction 

Johnson's impeachment grew out of the reconstruction 
affair. He vetoed nearly all the measures enacted by 
Congress, and they were passed over his veto. Stanton, 
his Secretary of War, was opposed to him and he at- 
tempted to remove Stanton, contrary to a law passed by 
Congress. He was impeached but acquitted. 

The reconstruction acts are largely responsible for the 
race question in the South to-day. Under "carpet bag" 
and negro rule, backed up by the military arm of the 
government, the southern states were robbed of many 
millions of dollars. This and the enfranchisement of the 
negro has kept the race question alive. 

POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 
I PouTiCAL Methods 

The chief change in political methods since the Civil 
War is the introduction of the Australian ballot system 
and its adoption throughout the Union. This removed 
opportunity for fraud and protected the secrecy of the 
ballot. It was a most important reform. A marked ad- 
vance in the political methods is shown by the enactment 
of Civil Service Laws by which the appointment of many 



Political Methods and Political Parties 275 

federal officers must be made on the basis of ability and 
not on the basis of political service. In 1871 Congress 
passed a Civil Service Reform Act. This law gave the 
President the power of selecting a commission which 
should devise a better plan for the appointment of men to 
all offices under his control. Grant was anxious to enforce 
this law and better the Civil Service, but the members of 
Congress, desiring the offices for political purposes, re- 
fused to vote money to carry out the reform. As a result, 
it proved of little value. In 1S.S;1, Congress passed the 
"Pendleton Civil Service Act." This law gave the Pres- 
ident the power of making appointments to office by 
means of examination, and officers thus appointed could 
not be removed so long as they did their work well. Pres- 
ident Arthur placed a large number of offices under this 
civil service regulation, and President Cleveland increased 
the number. Many of the best citizens of the United 
States hope that this law marks the beginning of the 
downfall of the Spoils System. 

II Political Parties 

During most of the time since the Civil War, the Re- 
publican party has had control of the national govern- 
ment, but the Democratic party has always been strong 
enough to exert a powerful influence, and has twice suc- 
ceeded in electing a president. Of the eleven presidents 
since 18 G4, Lincoln, Johnson, Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Ar- 
thur, Harrison, McKinley and Roosevelt were Republicans, 
while Cleveland served two terms as a Democratic presi- 
dent. Immediately after the close of the war the chief 
political issue was the reconstruction of the seceded states. 
Since then the two main political issues between the Dem- 
ocratic and Republican parties have been the money ques- 
tion and the tariff question, although, of course, there have 
been many minor issues. The many industrial and social 
questions have given rise to a number of other political 
parties. Among these are the Populist or People's party, 
the Prohibition party, and the Socialist party. 



276 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

I Financial Legislation 

1. The National Debt and the National Banking System 

The finances of the national government were in a 
bad state at the beginning- of the Civil War, the treasury 
being entirely empty. Consequently the government 
was forced to begin borrowing money soon after the 
war began. The supply of gold was soon exhausted 
and Congress was forced to issue paper money. About 
$500,000,000 of this paper money was issued during the 
war, and it was made a legal currency for all kinds of 
business, although no one could require the government 
to exchange gold or silver for it. Besides this paper 
money, the government issued bonds to the value of 
more than $1,000,000,000. 

During the Civil War the National bank system of 
the United States was established. This system is en- 
tirely different from the United States Bank destroyed 
by Jackson. It was established for the purpose of cre- 
ating a market for the sale of L^nited States bonds, in 
order that money might be secured to carry on the war. 
The law which established this system provides that not 
less than five persons, with a combined capital of not 
less than $100,000 may establish a national bank. They 
must invest a sum amounting to at least one third of 
their capital in United States bonds, and the govern- 
ment will then give them bank notes, not exceeding in 
value ninety per cent of the par value of these bonds. 
A tax levied by Congress on the notes of state banks 
caused most of them to become national banks, and 
thus the national government was able to sell large 
quantities of its bonds. The national banking system 
as first established has been slightly modified and at the 
present time is an important feature of the financial 
svstem of the United States. 



Financial and Industrial Legislation 277 

2. Resumption of Specie Payment 

During the Civil War gold and silver largely disap- 
peared from circulation, and paper money was in use 
throughout the country. In order to bring the finances 
of the country back to a gold and silver basis, Congress 
passed a law in 1864, which provided that the Treasury 
Department should pay out gold and silver in return for 
paper money, all the paper money thus secured to be 
destroyed. Within four years the amount of paper 
money in circulation was reduced from nearly $500,- 
000,000 to $356,000,000. The destruction of so much 
paper currency caused a scarcity of money, and in re- 
sponse to the demand of the people, specie payment was 
discontinued in 1868. In 1879 it was resumed and the 
finances of the country have ever since been on a hard 
money basis. 

3. Gold and Silver Standards 

Standard money is money that must be accepted in 
payment for all debts, and the material out of which 
this money is made must be coined by the United States 
mints practically free of charge for any one who takes 
the material to the mint and complies with the regula- 
tions. Until 1873 both gold and silver were standard 
moneys in the United States, — that is, any one possess- 
ing either gold or silver could have it coined into money. 
In 1873 the coinage of silver as a standard circulating 
medium was partially discontinued, and in 1876 the 
coinage of silver as a standard money was abolished. 
In 1878 it was again made a standard money, but the 
amount the government could coin during each year 
was limited. The law providing for this is called the 
Bland Silver Bill. In 1890 Congress passed what is 
known as the Sherman Act. This law directed the 
Secretary of the Treasury to buy about $15,000,000 
worth of silver each year. After 1891 it was provided 
that the silver bought need not be coined, but silver 
certificates for 4,500,000 ounces of silver must be issued 



278 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

each month and these redeemed in gold and silver. In 
order to protect the gold reserve in the United States 
Treasury, the Sherman Act was repealed in Cleveland's 
second administration. In the spring of 1900 Congress 
passed a law which declared, in substance, that the gold 
standard would be maintained in the United States. 

II Tariff Legislation 

Tariff, as used in national legislation, is a tax levied on 
goods brought into the United States from another coun- 
try. One of the main objects of a tariff is to obtain the 
money required for meeting the expenses of government 
and the payment of the national debt. Another object is 
to protect home industries. Many believe that tariff duties 
should be so levied as to protect the manufacturing and 
agricultural interests of the country. This means that all 
goods which can be produced in the United States should 
be required to pay an import duty so as to secure a better 
home market for home products and thus increase home 
production. On the other hand, many believe that a pro- 
tective tariff raises the price of goods and products and 
benefits only those who produce the articles on which an 
import duty is levied. These people therefore believe 
that a tariff should be levied for the purpose of revenue 
only, and that tariff duties should be levied only on such 
articles as are used by the wealthier classes. The majority 
of the people of the United States, however, believe that, 
in addition to raising a revenue for the expenses of the 
government one of the main objects of tariff duties should 
be the protection of home industries. During the war 
high tariff rates were levied in order to raise money to 
meet the expenses of the war, and in order to protect the 
manufacturing interests which were being heavily taxed. 
Since the war the tariff has rcinained strongly protective 
in nature. The W^ilson Bill, passed during Cleveland's 
second administration, modified the tariff in many re- 
spects, but it retained a large number of protective fea- 
tures. During IMcKinlcy's administration, a tariff with 



Financial and Jnduslrial Legislation 279 

full protective features was restored, and is still in oper- 
ation. The principle of a protective tariff is becoming 
more and more an accepted part of the economic policy 
of the United States. 

Ill Industrial Combinations 

1. Corporations, Trusts and Labor Organisations 

A corporation is an organization recognized by law, 
and empowered to transact a certain kind of business as 
though it were one person. The wonderful industrial 
progress of the United States has made it possible for 
men to amass large fortunes. These fortunes, singly 
or in combinations, have been used for the purpose of 
building long railroad lines, developing large mining in- 
terests, and carrying on other great enterprises. They 
have often taken advantage of the great power which 
they possess in order to crush out smaller enterprises 
having less financial backing. A vast corporation often 
takes the place of many individual business concerns. 
For example, the Western Union Telegraph Company 
was organized in 1886 out of forty small telegraph com- 
panies. Many lines of railroads have been combined 
into a few trunk lines. The Standard Oil Company has 
taken the place of any number of smaller oil companies. 
When great corporations were first organized they were 
brought into sharp competition with other corporations 
engaged in the same lines of business, and prices were 
kept at a low mark. The people received the benefit of 
this competition. The corporations soon learned that 
it was to their advantage to form combinations, thus 
avoiding competition with one another. Vast combines 
or trusts have now been formed in almost every line of 
business. 

In order to protect themselves against the combina- 
tions of capital referred to above, and to better their 
condition, many of the laboring people of the country 
have comlMucd at different times and under various 



280 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

names. Most of these labor unions have united and 
formed state federations, and the state federations are 
represented in what is known as the American Federa- 
tion of Labor, which exercises general control over 
nearly all the labor unions in the United States. By 
their combined efforts, the labor unions have shortened 
the hours of labor, raised wages and accomplished many 
other things which, taken together with the natural 
advantages and great industrial development of the 
United States, have raised the condition of the Amer- 
ican laborer above that of any other nation in the world. 

2. Lazi's Relating to Corporations, Trusts and Other 
Organisations 

The aggressive, and sometimes illegal, methods of 
great corporations and trusts, and some unjust and un- 
American demands of a few labor organizations, con- 
stitute one of the greatest problems now before the 
American people for solution. Corporations and trusts 
and labor unions are no doubt beneficial and necessary 
to our industrial development, but it has become quite 
evident during the last few years that the great mass 
of the American people must see to it that they do not 
infringe upon, nor interfere with, the great principles 
of personal freedom and personal initiative in business 
and labor, which have made possible the great growth 
of the American nation. Already laws having this 
object in view have been passed by both the national 
and state legislatures. Among such laws are those 
known as the Interstate Commerce Act passed by Con- 
gress in 1887, and the Railroad Rate Bill, passed in 
1906. These laws provide for the supervision of rail- 
roads by a national commission whose duty it is to pre- 
vent unfair discrimination between shippers, and to pre- 
vent combinations formed for the purpose of destroying 
competition and raising prices. Among the laws passed 
with special reference to labor, are the Contract Labor 
Law, which prohibits any person in the United States 



Foreign Relations 281 

from importing foreign laborers under contract, laws 
restricting Chinese immigration, and laws making eight 
hours a full day's labor in certain kinds of government 
employment. In 1903 Congress created the new execu- 
tive department of Commerce and Labor. Many states 
have passed laws regulating railway fares, and restrict- 
ing the powers and defining the duties of corporations 
and tnists. 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 

I Purchase of Alaska, 1867 

In October of 1SG7 the United States purchased Alaska, 
a territory containing 590,000 square miles, from Russia 
for about $7,000,000. At that time Alaska was thought to 
be valuable only for its furs, fisheries and lumber, but 
valuable mineral deposits have since been opened there, 
and it no doubt possesses other valuable resources. 

II Treaty of Washington, 1871 

The treaty of Washington provided for the settlement 
by arbitration of the questions in dispute between the 
United States and Great Britain. These questions were : 
The disputed boundary line between British Columbia 
and the territory of Washington, the rights of American 
fishermen in Canadian waters, and the claim of the United 
States for damages for the destruction of American com- 
merce during the Civil War by vessels fitted out in Brit- 
ish ports. This last mentioned is known as the "Alabama 
Claims" and was settled by the board of arbitration, which 
awarded $15,500,000 damages to the United States. This 
treaty is important, because it is the first notable example 
of the voluntary arbitration by two great nations of ques- 
tions in dispute. 

in Application of tlie Monroe Doctrine 
1. The French in Mexico, 1861-186/ 

During the Civil War a French Army had been sent 
into Mexico, and a French Empire had been established 



283 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

with Maximilian, an Austrian Archduke, as Emperor. 
Soon after the close of the war, the Secretary of State 
intimated to the French g-overnmcnt that the United 
States was now in a position to enforce the principles 
of the Monroe Doctrine, and the French soldiers were 
at once removed from Mexico. 

2. The Venezuelan Boundary^ iSc^y 

Great Britain and Venezuela could not agree upon 
the boundary between their territory in South America. 
Venezuela appealed to the United States and the United 
States asked Great Britain to submit the question to 
arbitration in accordance with the Monroe Doctrine. 
Great Britain claimed that the world had outj^rown that 
doctrine. On receiving a note from the British gov- 
ernment containing these views, Cleveland, with the 
authority of Congress, appointed a commission to deter- 
mine the boundary in dispute. In a proclamation to 
Congress he stated that when the boundary line had 
been determined by the commission, the United States 
should fight if necessary in order to maintain it. Eng- 
land then consented to have the matter submitted to 
arbitration. The firm stand of Cleveland served as a 
notice to the world that the United States would strictly 
enforce the Monroe Doctrine. In 1903 several Euro- 
pean powers blockaded some of the Venezuelan ports 
with a view of collecting debts due from Venezuela. 
Through the influence of this government the matter 
was referred to the Hague Tribunal. All of these in- 
cidents tended to serve notice that the American people 
were going to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. It is 
perhaps recognized by Europe today more than ever 
before as a fixed principle in regard to the affairs of 
the New World. 

IV Growth of Arbitration 

1. Application of the Principles of Arbitration 

The principle of arbitration has for some time been 
employed in the settling of domestic difficulties in the 



Foreign Relations 283 

United States, such as disputes between laborers and 
their employers. This has been particularly effective 
in the settlement of great strikes which have threatened 
the various industries of the nation, and even in some 
cases the welfare of the whole nation. An instance of 
this latter kind may be found in the great coal strike 
of 1902-1903 in the Pennsylvania coal fields, which was 
settled by arbitration after causing great injury to in- 
dustries and untold suffering among the people of the 
nation. As has been stated, the settlement of disputes 
between Great Britain and the ITnited States by a board 
consisting of arbitrators appointed by outside nations 
was the first notable application of arbitration to inter- 
national affairs. It marked a distinct advance in the 
settlement of international questions and has since be- 
come recognized as the best way in which to deal with 
many international difficulties. 

2. The Hague Tribunal, i8pp 

In 1899, at the suggestion of the Czar of Russia, 
delegates from twenty-six nations met at the Hague in 
Holland for the purpose of providing for a permanent 
Court of Arbitration for the settlement of difficulties 
between nations without their going to war. The work 
of this conference met with the heartiest approval of 
the various nations of the world, and as a result the 
Hague Tribunal of Peace has been established. It is 
the object of this tribunal to settle all such questions 
arising between nations as may be submitted to it justlv 
and fairly, and to thus promote the peace and welfare 
of the world. The United States has been among the 
foremost in urging the principles of arbitration. 

V The Spanish-American War, 1898 

1. Causes 

The remote cause of this war was the Spanish mis- 
government of her West Indian possessions, which 



284 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

caused continual rebellion among the inhabitants and 
endangered American property interests there. i\Iore- 
over the American people felt a great deal of sympathy 
for the people who were struggling to establish a re- 
publican government, and against whom a cruel and 
bloody warfare was being waged to crush this rebellion. 
The immediate cause of the war was the destruction of 
the American battleship IMaine, in the harbor of 
Havana, with the loss of more than two hundred and 
fifty sailors. It has not yet been proven, but it was 
generally believed that the destruction of the vessel was 
due to the Spaniards. At any rate it served to arouse 
the people of the United States and led directly to the 
war for the independence of Cuba. 

2. Campaigns 

(a) Naval Warfare 

The American navy decided the success of the 
United States in this war. Two naval battles were 
fought, one off the southern coast of Cuba, and one 
in the Philippine Islands which belonged to Spain, 
and where a part of the Spanish navy was stationed. 
In these two battles the Spanish navy was practically 
destroyed, without the loss to the American forces of 
a single ship, and with the loss of but one man. With 
her navy destroyed, Spain could not hope to make any 
effective resistance on the land, either in the Philip- 
pines or in the West Indies. 

(a) The A\'ar on Land 

The chief campaign of the war had for its object 
the capture of Santiago. Two vigorous battles were 
fought at El Caney and San Juan before the city was 
captured by the Americans. Another successful cam- 
paign was begun at Porto Rico, but was soon stopped 
by the declaration of peace. A third army was sent 
to the Philippines, where it aided in the capture of the 
chief city, Manila. 



Foreign Relations ^^^ 



3. Results 

The xvar itself was of comparatively little importance 
but its results are of great importance to the United 
States As an immediate result Cuba became mde- 
pendent of Spain and the United States gained consid- 
erable territory in the management of which she has 
entered upon some new policies, 
(a) Territorial Results 

r.y the treaty of peace after the close of the war the 
United States 'acquired the Philippine Islands, Guam, 
Porto Rico and other Spanish West Indian Islands 
giving Spain in return $20,000,000. This war had 
shown the military value of the Hawaiian Islands, 
and thev were also annexed to the United States in 
1898. The annexation of Hawaii had been proposed 
to the United States before, and would very likely 
have taken place in any event, but the war hastened it. 

(b) Political Results 

The political effect of this war is far reaching and 
may vitally affect the policy of the United States. _ If 
these possessions are treated as colonies, the United 
States may be compelled to mix in Asiatic and 
European afifairs, thus to a certain extent abandon- 
ing the principle of neutrality established by Wash- 
ington, to which the United States has always strictly 
adhered. Previous to the acquisition of this territory 
all of the country acquired by the United States had 
been practically unsettled, leaving for the American 
people the development of its resources and its prepa- 
ration for becoming an integral part of the Union. 
Most of the territory acquired from Spain during the 
recent war is thickly populated, and if it be held as 
colonial possessions, and the constitution of ^ the 
United States be not permitted to extend over it, a 
new principle will have entered into the American 
government. These questions belong to the future, 



286 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

and their solution will make some of the most im- 
portant work of American statesmen. 

VI The Isthmian Canal 

As early as 1S.")0 the huikling of a ship canal thronp^h 
some part of Central America was discussed, and a treaty 
made between England and America regarding the neu- 
trality of such canal when built. From time to time treat- 
ies were made concerning a canal to be built through 
Central America, but nothing was accomplished. The 
Spanish-American war emphasized the value of such a 
canal, and in 1901 the matter was taken up again. A 
second treaty was then made with England, guaranteeing 
the neutrality of the proposed canal, but giving the United 
States the right of ownership and defense. The construc- 
tion of the canal was then taken up by Congress. Two 
routes were proposed, one by way of Nicaragua and the 
other by way of Panama. A large sum was appropriated 
for the construction of the canal and negotiations were at 
once begun with Colombia for a canal by way of Panama. 
Upon the rejection by Colombia of the treaty giving the 
United States the power to construct the canal, Panama 
revolted and established a republic which was at once 
recognized by the United States and the other leading 
nations. The United States succeeded in making very 
favorable arrangements with the government of Panama 
and the treaty arranged by representatives of the United 
States and Panama was promptly ratified by both govern- 
ments in 1904, and work on the canal was at once begun. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 

The development of the institutional life of the United States 
since the Civil war has been remarkable, particularly along 
industrial lines. There has been very little change in the con- 
ditions of Government and Religion, except the natural de- 
velopment along lines laid down in the previous periods. 



Institutional Life 287 

Socially some new factors have entered into national life, and 
educationally the advance of the nation has been marvelous. 

I Industrial Conditions 

The industrial progress of the United States since the 
Civil war has not been equalled in any other period of the 
world's history. This industrial development has affected 
the entire institutional life of the nation, and has made the 
United States the wealthiest nation in the world. 

1. Improved Means of Transportation and Cominnnica- 
tion 
The development of the United States in these re- 
spects during the last forty years is remarkable. In 
1860 there were 30,000 miles of railroads ; at the present 
time there are over 200,000 miles and new roads are 
constantly being built. In 18G0 there were no railways 
west of the Missouri river. The first line reaching the 
Pacific was completed in 1869 and four other trans- 
continental lines have since been built, and, together 
with their branches, have penetrated every part of the 
West. The railroads have been a most important 
agency in national industrial and social development. 
Realizing this, the government has done much to en- 
courage the building of railroads. For this purpose it 
has given to railroad companies more than 200,000,000 
acres of land and $60,000,000. In addition to railroads, 
street-car systems are in use in all the cities and even in 
the larger towns and in thickly populated suburban dis- 
tricts. The use of electricity as a motive power has 
caused great improvements in transportation. Great 
steamship lines have been organized, and transportation 
by water much improved. The successful laying of 
oceanic cables has been accomplished during this last 
period, and now nearly all parts of the civilized world 
are in close communication. The telephone, too, has 
been invented and perfected within the last thirty years. 
The effect of this great advance in means of transporta- 



•288 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

tion and conimnnication can hardly be overestimated. 
It has aided tlie industrial growth of the nation by mak- 
ing it possible to develop the great natural resources of 
the country, especially of the interior part. It has also 
had a profound efifect on the industrial development of 
the country by creating an immense home market for 
the products of all parts of the nation. If the railroads 
did not exist, a large share of the products of many 
parts of the United States would never find a market 
The improved means of transportation and communica- 
tion have also exerted a great and beneficial infiuence 
on the nation socially by bringing the people into closer 
touch, doing away with sectionalism, and thus promot- 
ing the growth of a true national life. 

2. Other Inventions and Discoveries 

More inventions have been made during this period 
than in any other period in the world's history. These 
cover nearly every field of production and activity. The 
period is marked by the very rapid development of elec- 
tricity as a power. The period is also remarkable from 
the standpoint of discoveries in the various branches of 
science. 

3. Mannfactnrcs and A^^ricidiurc 

In 1860 the manufactured products of the United 
States were valued at $3,000,000,000. The estimated 
annual value of the present output from its factories is 
over $14,000,000,000, being greater than that of any 
other country in the world. The growth of the iron 
and steel industries is most remarkable. In 1800 Eng- 
land led the world in the production of iron and steel. 
Now the United States is far in advance of that country. 
This is but a single instance of the rapid growth of 
manufacturing interests in the United States. Over 
5,000,000 people arc employed in her factories. Nearly 
all of her large cities are hives of industrial enterprise, 
and the products of her factories are carried to the mar- 
kets of everv countrv in the world. 



Institutional Life 289 

Agriculture continues to be one of the leading indus- 
tries. The developing of the Middle West and the 
Pacific Coast has placed the United States in the front 
rank of agricultural nations. The building of railroads 
and the extension of irrigation have been important fac- 
tors in this agricultural development. Stock raising 
has also become an important industry in the West. Im- 
mense amounts of food stuffs are raised and exported 
by the United States and they form one of the chief 
sources of the wealth of the country. The United 
States furnishes 80 per cent of all the cotton raised in 
the world, and its annual exports of provisions, bread 
stuffs and cotton have a value of about $800,000,000. 

4. Commerce and Population 

The growth of commerce has kept pace with that of 
manufactures. On both the Atlantic and Pacific Coast 
are located great ship-building concerns, where not only 
American vessels, but also vessels of all kinds for for- 
eign nations are built. The total foreign commerce of 
the United States exceeds that of any other nation, and 
her domestic commerce is several times greater than that 
of any other nation. 

At the present time (1905) the population of the 
United States, not including Alaska and the territory 
secured as a result of the Spanish-American War, is 
about 80,000,000, or about two and a half times what 
it was at the close of the Civil War. 

The immense foreign immigration since the Civil 
War has had a most important effect on industrial con- 
ditions in the United States. Without the labor of 
these immigrants many of the great industries could not 
have been built up. Their labor has been valuable par- 
ticularly in the building of railroads and in the working 
of mines. Of late years, however, many of the immi- 
grants have been of a lower class, and have come in 
such numbers that many believe that the continued prac- 
tically unlimited admission of immigrants is becoming a 



290 RFXONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPAIENT AND EXPANSION 

serious menace to our institutions, and that Congress 
should pass stringent laws concerning immigration. 

5.. The New South 

The abolition of slavery produced a revolution in the 
labor system of the South. Before the War, as has 
been stated, slavery had been the corner stone of south- 
ern society. With the emancipation of the slaves this 
society passed away, and on its ruins rose a "New 
South," having free labor as its foundation. The South 
has gained greatly by this change. The production of 
cotton has more than doubled since ISGO. At that time 
the capital invested in southern manufacturing indus- 
tries was so small as to scarcely require mentioning. 
There is now invested in machine-shops, mills and work- 
shops more than $50,000,000 of capital. Thousands of 
miles of railroads have been built. Coal and iron mines 
have been opened up. Atlanta, Chattanooga, New 
Orleans, Augusta, Birmingham, and other southern 
cities now have manufacturing establishments which 
rival those of the North and West. 

6. The Development of the New IVest 

The discovery of gold and silver and other mineral 
mines in the Rocky Mountains and in the country lying 
west of these mountains early caused a great stream of 
immigration to start westward. At first the covered 
wagon w-as the principal means of transportation. 
Later came the overland stage-coach, and later still rail- 
roads reaching to the Pacific. These railways have had 
more infiuence on the development of the West than any 
other single factor. The recent discoveries of immense 
oil fields in California promise to make the Pacific Coast 
a more important manufacturing region, by supplying 
a cheap fuel, the lack of which has been a serious draw- 
back to manufacturing interests on the coast. The 
utilization of the mountain streams by converting their 
force into electric power is also furnishing cheap motive 



Institutional Life 291 

power. Another important factor in the development of 
the West has been the extensive use of irrig^ation by 
which arid lands have been made fertile, and homes for 
thousands of settlers have been created. The fact that 
the national government has decided to assist in reclaim- 
ing western lands by irrigation should result in greatly 
increasing the productive farming area of the West. 

II Social Coxditioxs 

There have been many changes in the social conditions 
during this time. Some of these changes have been for 
the better and some for the worse. The more important 
factors that have tended to change and modify the social 
conditions of the nation during this period are the negro 
question, the immense foreign immigration, the great in- 
dustrial advance with the resulting creation of vast 
private fortunes, and the improvement in means of 
transportation and communication. The last factor 
has done more than anything else to break down local- 
ism in manners and customs, and to unify the social life 
of the nation. The coming to the United States of so 
many of the worst classes of Europe is having an un- 
desirable effect on social conditions, because these im- 
migrants congregate in large cities and do not readily 
assimilate American customs and ideals. The negro 
question which was created by the emancipation and en- 
franchisement of the negroes, more vitally concerns the 
South. The solution of this question rests largely with 
the people of the South, and in this work they deserve 
the sympathy and co-operation of ever}' citizen of the 
nation. Industrial education promises to be the most 
important factor in the solution of this problem. 

The great industrial development of the nation has 
tended, on the whole, to advance social conditions, be- 
cause it has enabled the great mass of the people to have 
better homes, better clothes, better food, and more lux- 
uries, and to enjoy more fully the pleasures of social 
life. On the other hand the tendency of large private 



202 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

fortunes is to create class distinctions based on wealth. 
While there are some undesirable tendencies and con- 
ditions in the social life of the nation, the great improve- 
ment along industrial lines has caused and is causing a 
steady improvement in social conditions. 

Til Education 

1. Natiire of Development 

In no respect has the advance of the United States 
since the Civil War been more marked than in the mat- 
ter of education, and especially is this true in the South. 
This great advance in education throughout the United 
States is seen in the present condition of the public 
school system and in numerous institutions of higher 
education; in the number and ((uality of newspapers and 
magazines; in institutes, conventions and clubs of 
various kinds, which have for their object mutual im- 
provement ; and in the number of nuiseums, libraries 
and art galleries. 

2. TJie Public Elementary School System 

The free elementary public school system as it exists 
in the United States today has been built up and de- 
veloped almost entirely since the Civil War. There 
were public schools before the Civil War and they were 
doing excellent work, but there were not many free 
pul)lic schools before that time and in efficiency and 
equipment those schools were far inferior to those of 
today. Just before the Civil War the people were be- 
ginning to demand free public schools as a right, and 
this soon resulted in placing the general management of 
the school system under the control of state school 
officials and in the levying of state school taxes. This 
was a new principle in education, for before, such mat- 
ters had been left almost entirely in the hands of city and 
county officials. At the present time the constitutions 
of nearly all the States make ample provision for the 



Institutional Life 293 

maintenance of the free public schools. Nearly all of 
the states west of the Alleghany mountains, under the 
direction of Congress, set aside, at the time of their 
organization, certain lands in each township for the 
support of public schools. In most cases these lantls 
have been sold, and the money obtained from their sale 
constitutes a school fund, the interest on wdiich is used 
for school purposes. When additional money is needed 
it is raised by direct local and state taxation. 

Although each state has its own school system, and 
there is a wide difference as to the length of school 
terms, qualifications and salaries of teachers, courses of 
study and similar matters, there are strong forces at 
work which tend to make the schools uniform through- 
out the United States. Among these forces are state 
and national educational associations, and the National 
Bureau of Education, the latter being under the direct 
control of the national government. 

3. The Public High School System 

The advance in high school education during this 
period, has been as great and as important as the im- 
provement in the elementary schools. The whole pub- 
lic high school system has been developed largely within 
the last forty years, the number of high schools doubling 
within the last ten years. The high schools have been 
aptly termed the colleges of the common people. Their 
service in strengthening the work of the elementary 
schools and in giving the young people of all classes an 
opportunity for a higher education, can hardly be over- 
estimated. Many of the public high schools in the 
United States today ofifer courses of study of as high 
grade as did Yale and Harvard a hundred years ago. 

4. Uiiii'crsitics, Colleges ami Special Schools 

The growth of the state universities is one of the most 
notable features of the advance in education. Nearly 
everv state in the Union has established an institution 



2'J4 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

of this kind, supported by taxation, grants of public 
land, and appropriations by the legislatures. Several 
great institutions of learning and numerous smaller col- 
leges have been established throughout the United 
States by private individuals. These institutions of 
higher education are having an important effect on 
American character and ideals. 

There have been established within the United States 
during this period many special schools, among which 
are normal schools for the training of teachers ; medical 
schools for the training of physicians and surgeons ; law 
schools for the training of lawyers ; and many other 
technical schools for the training of men and women 
along professional and technical lines. 



QUESTIONS AND TOPICS 

RECONSTRUCTION OF THE CONFEDER.\TE STATES 

Question's for Ci_\5S Recitatioxs 

What was the condition of government in the seceded states at 
the close of the Civil War? Explain the question which this 
condition brought before the national government. Explain care- 
fully each of the three ^■^ew5 which were held regarding the rela- 
tion of the seceded states to the national government. To what 
extent did Lincoln carry out his views, and what did he say his 
future policy in the whole matter would be? Describe the circum- 
stances of Lincoln's death. How was his death received by the 
northern people? Explain why the news of his death was received 
with sincere sorrow and regret bj' the entire civilized world. 
Why was his death an especially great loss to the South? De- 
scribe the early life of Lincoln. Discuss Lincoln's character and 
ability. 

Compare Lincoln's and Johnson's policies of reconstruction. 
Explain how and to what extent Johnson carried out his policy. 
Read and explain the Thirteenth Amendment. Explain the nature 
of the laws which the new state legislature of the South passed 
for the control of the negroes. Why did the South pass these 
laws? What effect did the passage of these laws have on the 
northern people? Explain carefully how Congress, when it met 
in December, 1S65. treated the reconstruction policy of Johnson. 
Explain the creation, power, and purpose of the Freedmen's 
Bureau. Explain the relation and feeling which existed between 
Congress and Johnson over the Freedmen's Bureau and other 
matters of reconstruction. Read and explain the provisions of the 
Fourteenth Amendment. Explain carefullj- how this amendment 
was received in the South, and why it was so received. Bj- this 
time what was the attitude of the people of the North on the 
question of reconstruction? Explain carefullj- the plan of recon- 
struction provided for in the Reconstruction Acts. How did the 
seceded r-tate.«; receive these acts? Read and explain the provisions 
of the Fifteenth Amendment. In what way was this amendment 
connected with the end of the political reconstruction of the South? 

Discuss the impeachment of President Johnson. Explain how 
the reconstruction policy of Congress enabled northern immigrants 
and the negroes to control for a time some of the state legislatures 
of the South. How did the southern people feel about this? How 
would you have felt? Explain the relation between the race ques- 



296 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

tion and the reconstruction of the seceded states. Give your opin- 
ion as to the wisdom of making the Fifteenth Amendment a part 
of the Constitution. 



POLITICAL METHODS AND POLITICAL PARTIES 

Questions for Class Recitations 

Explain the Australian ballot system. Explain carefully why the 
adoption of this system was a very important advance in political 
methods. Why is it very important for the people to take an active 
part in the selection of candidates for office? How may they do 
this? Describe the Spoils System, and explain the bad results of 
this system. Explain carefully the object of the Civil Service 
Laws. Give the history of these laws in the United States and 
what they have accomplished. 

Discuss the leaders and principles of the Republican party since 
the Civil War. Discuss the leaders and principles of the Demo- 
cratic party during this period. Discuss the leading issues between 
these two parties during this period. Discuss the conditions caus- 
ing the formation of other parties. 

FINANCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL LEGISLATION 

Questions for Class Recitations 

What was the condition of the finances of the national govern- 
ment at the beginning of the Civil War? Why did the govern- 
ment find it necessary to issue paper money? What is a national 
bond? Why did the government issue bonds during the war? 
Describe the national bank system. Why was it created? What 
action did Congress take against the state banks? What is specie 
payment? When the paper money was first issued, could it be 
exchanged for gold and silver money? What effect did this have 
on the use of gold and silver money in business affairs? Explain 
what is meant by the resumption of specie payment in 1S()4. 
What effect did this have on the amount of paper money in circula- 
tion? After ISdl, when and for what reason was si)ecie payment 
discontinued, and when was it resumed? lCxi)lain fully what is 
meant by standard money. L^p to 1873, what was standard money 
in the United States. Explain carefully how silver since 1873 
has gradually lost its position as a full standard money. 

Explain the two main objects for which tariff duties are levied. 
Explain the two different views regarding the value of the pro- 
tective principle of the tariff. What is your opinion as to the 



Questions and Toi'ics 297 

merits of the protective system? Beginning with the Civil War, 
trace and explain the tariff legislation of the nation. 

What is a corporation? For what purposes are corporations 
organized? What is a trust? Give some examples of vast cor- 
porations or trusts. In what ways are they benehcial, and in what 
ways are they harmful? What is a labor union? Wliy were labor 
unions organized? In what way have they benefited the working 
classes? What is meant by personal freedom and personal initia- 
tive in business and industry? (This question should receive a 
most careful discussion by teacher and pupils.) Explain carefully 
how freedom in business and industry and fair, open, and honest 
industrial competition are principles that are absolutely necessary 
to the prosperity and happiness of the American people. Why 
is it necessary that the people see to it that great combinations 
do not interfere with these principles? Explain in what waj'S 
certain combinations have done so or have threatened to do so 
already. Describe those laws which have already been passed for 
the purpose of restricting the powers and defining the duties of 
corporations, trusts, and other combinations. 

FOREIGN RELATIONS 
Questions for Cl.\ss Recitations 

How did the United States secure Alaska? Describe the terri- 
tory. Of what value is it to the United States? 

Explain how the seizure of the Confederate commissioners on 
the British vessel Trent created a strong feeling among the 
northern people against Great Britain. Why was the government 
of the United States not very anxious after the Civil War to settle 
the disputes between this country and England? Discuss the pro- 
visions of the Treaty of Washington. Explain the final results 
secured by the provisions of this treaty. Why is this treaty of 
special importance? 

Describe the conditions in Mexico during the Civil War. Ex- 
plain how the principles of the Mqnroe Doctrine applied to these 
conditions. Discuss the Venezuelan l)oundary dispute, and the ap- 
plication of the Monrdc dndrine to this case. Mow did the Mon- 
roe Doctrine apply to the recent blockade of the ports of Vene- 
zuela? What effect did all this have on the Monroe Doctrine? 

(The teacher should consult magazines covering this period for 
material on this topic. The American Review of Reviews is es- 
pecially valuable.) What is meant by arbitration? Describe the 
appointing of a board of arbitration. Give examples of its use in 
settling difficulties between laborers and their employers in the 
United States. Of what value is arbitration in cases of this kind? 



298 RECONSTRUCTION. DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

Give instances of the application of the principle of arbitration to 
international affairs affecting the United States. Discuss the 
establishment of the Hague Peace Tribunal. Give a history of this 
tribunal and its work. What can you say of its probable value to 
mankind? 

Discuss the causes of the Spanish-American War. Discuss the 
leading naval battles of this war, and discuss their effect. Describe 
the campaign for the capture of Santiago. (Each pupil should 
draw up a map illustrating the important battles of this war.) 
Discuss the terms of the treaty of peace. Tell all you can about 
the character and conditions of the territory acquired by the 
United States through this treaty. How did the Spanish-.A.merican 
War affect the annexation of Hawaii? (Each pupil should draw 
a map showing the territorial acquisitions of the United States 
as a result of this war.) How is the territory acquired by this war 
governed at the present time? Compare the government of 
Hawaii with that of the Philippine Islands. Compare the con- 
ditions in the territory acquired from Spain with those in the terri- 
tory previously acquired by the United States. Why was a dif- 
ferent policy adopted in the government of this new territory from 
that followed in the organization and government of the other terri- 
tory of the United States? In what way, if in any, do the results of 
the Spanish-American War tend to violate the principle of American 
neutrality established by Washington? In what way may the 
Spanish-American War cause a new principle to enter into the 
government of the United States? 

Tell all you can of the history of the Panama Canal. (Each 
pupil should draw a map showing the two routes proposed.) Dis- 
cuss the importance of this canal, and estimate its probable value 
to the United States and to the commerce of the world. 

INSTITUTIONAL LIFE 
Questions for Cl.'\ss Recitations 

Discuss the nature of the changes in the institutional life whicli 
have taken place since the Civil War. Explain very carefully why 
tlie period between 1828 and ISOO will always stand unique and 
unrivaled in the history of the world as regards means of trans- 
l)ortation and communication. (This last question deserves very 
careful consideration.) Describe the n.iture and value of those 
new inventions and discoveries which have affected means of 
transportation and communication since 18G0. Describe the in- 
crease in railroad mileage since 1860. Explain carefully how this 
wonderful growth of the railways of the nation has affected in- 
dustrial and social conditions. Compare the number and nature 



Qucstiuiis ami Topics 299 

of the inventions made since the Civil War with those made dur- 
ing the period before that war. How did the people of the United 
States continue to compare with the people of other nations in 
regard to the making of inventions and discoveries? Describe 
the inventions made for the practical application of electric power. 
What is your opinion concerning the future use of electricity for 
practical purposes? 

Explain carefully how the invention of new machinery and the 
increased production of iron, copper, gold, and silver goods have 
caused the rapid development of the mineral resources of the na- 
tion. In what way have the new inventions and the increased 
production of useful machinery caused an increased production of 
manufactured goods and agricultural products? (This question 
deserves very careful consideration.) Describe briefly the growth 
of agriculture during this period. Describe briefly the growth 
of manufactures during this period. What is your opinion regard- 
ing the future growth in the United States of the agricultural and 
manufacturing industries? Explain the relation between the 
growth in the farming and manufacturing industries and the 
growth in commerce, cities, and population. Compare the foreign 
commerce of the United States with the foreign commerce of 
other nations. Discuss the domestic commerce of the United 
States, explaining the causes of its growth, and comparing it with 
the domestic and foreign commerce of other nations. Compare 
the population of the United States in 1860 with its population in 
1905. What have been the causes of this rapid growth? Describe 
the growth of the cities during this period. Explain carefully 
what have been the causes of this growth. Why is this unusual 
tendency to crowd to the cities thought to be against the best 
interests of the nation? 

Compare the growth of the South during this period with her 
growth during the period before the Civil War. What were the 
causes of this change? How did the abolition of slavery afifect 
the building of railways in the South? How did it afifect the 
growth of manufactories and the production of cotton? How did 
it afifect the growth of population? Compare the growth of the 
West during this period with the early settlement and growth 
of the other sections of the United States. Compare the popula- 
tion of this western country in 1860 with itts population in 190.5. 
Explain carefully the growth of the West in means of transporta- 
tion and communication, and in wealth and commerce. What can 
you say as regards the probable future growth of the western 
country? 

Explain carefully each of the more important factors that have 
brought about changes in the social conditions of the nation since 



300 RECONSTRUCTION, DEVELOPMENT AND EXPANSION 

the Civil War. Explain how improvement in means of trans- 
portation and communication affected social conditions during this 
period. What effect lias tlie ininii,nrati()n of undesirable people 
from tliC nations of Europe had upon the social conditions of the 
nation? Explain the iniporiauec of the race question to the social 
conditions of the nation. I low has the great industrial growth 
of the nation affected social conditions? What is your opinion 
concerning the continued improvement in social conditions? 

How does the growth of education in the United States since 
the Civil War compare with the industrial growth? What things 
give evidence of this educational growth? Explain carefully how 
this great educational advance indicates a bright future for the 
nation. In what vital way is the question of teachers' salaries 
related to the growth of education? Give a very careful discussion 
of the growth of the elementary public school system. Give a very 
careful discussion of the growth of the public high school system. 
Give a very careful discussion of the growth of colleges, universi- 
ties, and special schools. What i*"' the especial value to the nation 
of these schools of higher and special education? 

Questions for Compositions and Examin.\tions 

Discuss the relation of the Confederate states to the national 
government at the end of the Civil War. Discuss the death, 
character, and ability of Lincoln. Discuss the reconstruction policy 
of Johnson. Discuss the reconstruction policy of Congress, in- 
cluding a careful discussion of the results of this policy. Discuss 
the changes in political methods which took place during this 
period. Discuss the political parties of this period and their posi- 
tion on the leading political issues. Give a careful discussion of 
the nation's linancial legislation. Beginning with 1800, give a 
careful discussion of tariff legislation in the United States. Give 
a careful discussion of corporations, trusts, and other combina- 
tions. Discuss the Treaty of Washington. Discuss the applica- 
tion of the principles of the Moin-oe Doctrine during this period. 
Discuss the growth of arbitration in domestic and international 
affairs. Discuss the Spanish-.Xnurican War and its territorial 
results. Discuss the ways in which the form of government ad- 
opted by Congress for the territory secured from Sjiain tends to 
introduce new principles into the government o{ the United States. 
How may the results of the Spanish-.Vmerican War modify the 
principles of American neutrality in European affairs? Discuss 
the history and importance of the Isthmian Canal. Give a careful 
discussion of the industrial growth of the nation during the forty- 
five years between 1860 and 1905. Discuss the growth of the 
South during this period. Discuss the growth of the West during 



Questions and Topics 301 

this period. Discuss the changes in social conditions which have 
occurred since 1860. Give a careful discussion of the growth of 
schools and education in the United States since 1860. 

Subjects for Special Study and General Review 

(A careful study of the subjects which follow should constitute 
the review for the eighth-grade work in history and civics. The 
pupil should have ample time for the study of these subjects, and 
should be permitted free access to available material when prepar- 
ing these papers or written discussions.) Beginning with the 
Revolution, give a written discussion of the Growth of the United 
States in Territory and Population. Beginning with "Institutional 
Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and 
Change in Industrial Conditions. Beginning with "Institutional 
Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth 
and Changes in Social Conditions. Beginning with "Institutional 
Life in the Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and 
Changes in Government. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the 
Colonies," give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes 
in Religion. Beginning with "Institutional Life in the Colonies," 
give a written discussion of the Growth and Changes in Educa- 
tion. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a written discus- 
sion of the Growth and Changes in Financial Conditions and 
Financial Affairs. Beginning with the "Critical Period," give a 
written discussion of the Tarif? Policy of the United States. Give 
a writtten discussion of the Growth of Slavery in the United 
States. Give a written discussion of the American Civil War, 
including its causes and the reconstruction of the seceded states. 
Beginning with Washington's first administration, give a written 
discussion of the Foreign Relations of the United States, including 
the period of European Interference, the War with Mexico, and 
the Spanish-American War. Beginning with Washington's first 
administration, give a written discussion of the Growth and 
Changes in Political Parties and Political Methods. 



JAN 18 1907 



